definition of self assessment essay

5 Exact Examples: How to Write a Strong Self-Evaluation

By Status.net Editorial Team on December 18, 2023 — 15 minutes to read

Self-evaluation, also known as self-assessment, is a process where you critically examine your own actions, behaviors, values, and achievements to determine your strengths, weaknesses and areas for development. This type of evaluation is commonly a part of performance reviews at companies, but you can also practice it independently to positively impact your career and personal growth. Writing an effective self-evaluation requires honesty, introspection, and clear communication.

Getting Started

Reflect on your achievements.

Before diving into a self-evaluation, take some time to reflect on your successes throughout the review period. Jot down a list of milestones, completed projects, and goals you’ve met. This exercise allows you to not only celebrate your accomplishments but also gives you a starting point for the evaluation. For example, “Launched a successful marketing campaign, resulting in an 8% increase in leads.”

Identify Areas for Growth

After reflecting on your achievements, Shift your focus to the areas where you can improve. This requires being honest with yourself about your weaknesses and challenges you’ve faced during the review period. Write down examples where you struggled and think about what could have been done differently. Here’s an example: “I struggled to meet deadlines on two major projects because I underestimated the time needed for completion.”

Gather Feedback

A self-evaluation is an opportunity to hear and incorporate feedback from your colleagues. Ask for constructive feedback from trusted coworkers and jot down their suggestions. Be sure to consider their perspectives when writing your self-evaluation. For example, a coworker might say, “You were a great team player during the project, but your communication could be more timely.”

Review Your Job Description

Finally, review your job description to ensure you have a clear understanding of your role and responsibilities. Use this as a reference point to measure your performance and ensure your evaluation covers all aspects of your job. This will help you to focus on key goals and responsibilities you should address in your self-evaluation. For instance, if your job description states, “Collaborate effectively with the sales team to generate new leads,” think about how you’ve fulfilled this responsibility and include specific examples in your evaluation.

Self-Evaluation Template

Introduction: – Begin by summarizing your role and the primary responsibilities you hold within the organization. – Highlight any overarching goals or objectives that were set for the evaluation period.

Key Accomplishments: – List your significant achievements since the last evaluation, providing specific examples. – Detail how these accomplishments have positively impacted the team or organization. – Use metrics and data where possible to quantify your success.

Strengths and Skills: – Identify the skills and strengths that have contributed to your achievements. – Provide examples of how you have demonstrated these strengths in your work.

Areas for Improvement: – Reflect on any challenges you faced and areas where you see opportunities for personal growth. – Outline your plan for addressing these areas and how you intend to implement changes.

Professional Development: – Discuss any new skills or knowledge you have acquired. – Explain how you have applied or plan to apply this new expertise to your current role.

Goals for the Next Period: – Set clear, achievable goals for the next evaluation period. – Explain how these goals align with the organization’s objectives and your professional development.

Conclusion: – Summarize your contributions and express your commitment to ongoing improvement and excellence. – Offer to discuss any feedback or support you may need from management to achieve your future goals.

[Your Name] Self-Evaluation

Introduction : My role as [Your Job Title] at [Company Name] involves [briefly describe your main responsibilities]. Over the past [timeframe], I have aimed to [state your overarching goals or objectives].

Key Accomplishments: 1. [Accomplishment 1]: [Description and impact]. 2. [Accomplishment 2]: [Description and impact]. 3. [Accomplishment 3]: [Description and impact].

Strengths and Skills: – [Strength/Skill 1]: [Example of how you demonstrated this]. – [Strength/Skill 2]: [Example of how you demonstrated this]. – [Strength/Skill 3]: [Example of how you demonstrated this].

Areas for Improvement: – [Area for Improvement 1]: [Your plan to improve]. – [Area for Improvement 2]: [Your plan to improve].

Professional Development: – [New Skill/Knowledge]: [How you have applied or plan to apply it].

Goals for the Next Period: – [Goal 1]: [How it aligns with organizational/professional objectives]. – [Goal 2]: [How it aligns with organizational/professional objectives].

Conclusion: I am proud of what I have accomplished in [timeframe] and am eager to continue contributing to [Company Name]. I am committed to [specific actions for improvement and goals], and I look forward to any feedback that can help me grow further in my role. I would appreciate the opportunity to discuss any additional support needed from management to succeed in my endeavors.

[Optional: Request for meeting or discussion with supervisor]

Example of a Strong Self-Evaluation

Jane Smith Self-Evaluation

Introduction: As a Senior Graphic Designer at Creative Solutions Inc., my role involves conceptualizing and designing visual content that effectively communicates our clients’ branding and marketing objectives. Over the past year, I have aimed to enhance the creativity and efficiency of our design output, ensuring client satisfaction and team growth.

Key Accomplishments: 1. Brand Campaign Launch: Led the design team in creating a comprehensive visual campaign for our key client, Luxe Cosmetics, which resulted in a 40% increase in their social media engagement within two months. 2. Workflow Optimization: Implemented a new design workflow using Agile methodologies that reduced project turnaround time by 25%, allowing us to take on 15% more client work without compromising quality. 3. Design Award: Received the “Innovative Design of the Year” award for my work on the EcoGreen initiative, which raised awareness about sustainable living practices through compelling visual storytelling.

Strengths and Skills: – Creativity and Innovation: Consistently pushed the boundaries of traditional design to create fresh and engaging content, as evidenced by the Luxe Cosmetics campaign. – Team Leadership: Fostered a collaborative team environment that encouraged the sharing of ideas and techniques, leading to a more versatile and skilled design team. – Efficiency: Streamlined design processes by introducing new software and collaboration tools, significantly improving project delivery times.

Areas for Improvement: – Public Speaking: While I am confident in my design skills, I aim to improve my public speaking abilities to more effectively present and pitch our design concepts to clients. – Advanced Animation Techniques: To stay ahead in the industry, I plan to enhance my knowledge of animation software to expand our service offerings.

Professional Development: – Advanced Adobe After Effects Course: Completed a course to refine my animation skills, which I plan to leverage in upcoming projects to add dynamic elements to our designs.

Goals for the Next Period: – Client Retention: Aim to increase client retention by 20% by delivering consistently high-quality designs and improving client communication strategies. – Mentoring: Establish a mentoring program within the design team to nurture the development of junior designers, ensuring a pipeline of talent and leadership for the future.

Conclusion: I am proud of the contributions I have made to Creative Solutions Inc. this year, particularly in enhancing our design quality and team capabilities. I am committed to further developing my public speaking skills and expanding our animation services, and I look forward to any feedback that can help me progress in these areas. I would appreciate the opportunity to discuss additional resources or support from management that could facilitate achieving these goals.

Best regards, Jane Smith

Writing Your Self-Evaluation

Follow the company format.

Before you begin writing your self-evaluation, make sure to check with your organization’s guidelines and format. Adhering to the provided template will ensure that you include all relevant information, making it easier for your supervisors to review. You may also find examples and tips within the company resources that can help you present your achievements and goals in a concise and effective manner.

Start with Your Successes

When writing a self-evaluation, it’s essential to highlight your accomplishments and contributions positively. List your achievements and victories, focusing on those that align with the organization’s goals and values. Back up your claims with specific examples and statistics, if available. This not only showcases your hard work but also reinforces your value to the company.

For instance, if you surpassed a sales target, mention the exact percentage you exceeded and describe how you achieved this. Or if you successfully led a team project, outline the steps you took to manage and motivate your colleagues.

Discuss Your Challenges

While it’s important to discuss your successes, acknowledging your challenges and areas of improvement demonstrates self-awareness and commitment to personal growth. Don’t shy away from admitting where you struggled—instead, be honest and identify these obstacles as opportunities for development. Explain what actions you’re taking to improve, like attending workshops, seeking feedback, or collaborating with colleagues.

For example, if you faced difficulties managing your time, discuss the strategies you’ve implemented to stay organized and prioritize tasks more effectively.

Set Goals for Yourself

Setting achievable and realistic goals is a crucial part of any self-evaluation. By outlining your ambitions, you communicate to your supervisors that you’re eager to progress and contribute to the organization’s success. Break down your goals into actionable steps and consider including timelines to make them more concrete and measurable.

If one of your goals is to improve your public speaking skills, you might include steps such as participating in meetings, volunteering for presentations, or attending workshops, with specific deadlines and milestones attached. This level of detail demonstrates your dedication to achieving your goals while providing a clear roadmap for your growth.

Strong Self-Evaluation: Providing Examples

Use specific instances.

When writing a self-evaluation, try to provide clear and specific examples from your work experience. By offering concrete instances, you help paint a more accurate picture of your achievements and progress. For instance, instead of saying, “I improved my communication skills,” you could say, “I successfully trained three new team members and presented our quarterly report to the management team.” Using detailed examples will make it easier for your supervisors to understand your accomplishments and appreciate your efforts.

Quantify Your Accomplishments

Wherever possible, try to quantify your achievements by using numbers, percentages, or any other measurable indicators. This can help make your successes more tangible and easier to understand. For example, you might mention that you increased sales by 20% in your department or that you completed a project two weeks ahead of schedule. Always aim to back up your statements with quantifiable information to support your claims and show your effectiveness in your role.

Highlight Your Progress

It’s important to focus on the progress you’ve made and the growth you’ve experienced in your role. Use the self-evaluation as an opportunity to reflect on your personal and professional development. For example, you could discuss how you learned a new software program that boosted your team’s productivity, or how you overcame struggles with time management by implementing new strategies. Emphasize not just your accomplishments but also the positive changes you’ve made for yourself and your team throughout the evaluation period. This will help demonstrate your dedication to growth and continuous improvement.

1. Project Management Skills: – Strong Self-Evaluation Example: “In my role as a project manager, I successfully led a team of 10 to deliver a complex software development project three weeks ahead of schedule. I attribute this accomplishment to my rigorous approach to project planning, where I meticulously outlined project phases, set realistic milestones, and conducted weekly check-ins with team members to gauge progress and address any roadblocks. My proactive communication strategy prevented delays and ensured that all team members were aligned with the project objectives.”

2. Customer Service Excellence: – Strong Self-Evaluation Example: “I have consistently maintained a customer satisfaction rating above 95% over the past year by employing an empathetic and solution-oriented approach to customer interactions. For instance, when a customer was frustrated with a delayed order, I took the initiative to not only expedite the shipping but also provided a discount on their next purchase. This resulted in a positive review and repeat business, demonstrating my commitment to going above and beyond to ensure customer satisfaction.”

3. Innovative Problem Solving: – Strong Self-Evaluation Example: “I identified a recurring bottleneck in our inventory management process that was causing shipment delays. By analyzing the workflow and collaborating with the logistics team, I designed a new inventory tracking system using a Kanban board that increased our efficiency by 30%. This initiative reduced average shipment times from 5 days to 3 days, significantly improving our order fulfillment rates.”

4. Effective Team Leadership: – Strong Self-Evaluation Example: “As the head of the marketing team, I led a campaign that resulted in a 20% increase in brand engagement. I achieved this by fostering a collaborative environment where each team member’s ideas were valued and incorporated. I organized brainstorming sessions that encouraged creative problem-solving and ensured that the team’s goals were aligned with the company’s vision. My leadership directly influenced the campaign’s success and the team’s high morale.”

5. Adaptability and Learning Agility: – Strong Self-Evaluation Example: “When our company transitioned to a new CRM system, I took the initiative to master the software ahead of the formal training. I then shared my knowledge with my colleagues through a series of workshops, which facilitated a smoother transition for the entire department. My ability to quickly adapt to new technology and willingness to assist others in their learning process demonstrates my dedication to continuous improvement and team success.”

Self-Evaluation Dos and Don’ts

Stay honest and constructive.

When writing a self-evaluation, it’s vital to be honest and realistic about your performance. Reflect on the achievements and challenges you’ve faced, and consider areas where you can improve. For example, if you struggled to complete a project on time, mention the obstacles you faced and the lessons you learned. This will show that you’re committed to personal growth and self-improvement.

I successfully completed seven out of eight projects within the given time frame. However, there were difficulties in delivering the last project on time due to a lack of resources. Moving forward, I plan to improve on allocating resources more effectively to ensure timely delivery.

Avoid Undermining Your Efforts

While it’s essential to view your performance objectively, don’t downplay your achievements or accomplishments. Acknowledge your efforts and reflect on your contributions to the team. For instance, if you’ve improved your sales numbers, highlight your success and outline the strategies you implemented to achieve this.

This quarter, my sales numbers increased by 15%, surpassing the target of 10%. I was persistent in following up on leads and implemented new techniques, such as personalized presentations, to connect with potential clients better.

Keep a Positive Outlook

Maintaining a positive attitude when discussing your performance is crucial in a self-evaluation. Focus on the progress you’ve made and show your willingness to learn from mistakes and challenges. Don’t dwell on the negatives; instead, frame them as opportunities for growth and learning, and share your plans for improvement.

While I encountered challenges in team communication earlier in the year, I have since taken steps to improve. I enrolled in a communication skills workshop, and the techniques I learned have helped me collaborate more effectively with my colleagues. I look forward to applying these skills to future projects.

Finalizing Your Self-Evaluation

Edit for clarity and concision.

After you’ve written your self-evaluation, take some time to review and edit it for clarity and concision. This means making sure that your points are expressed clearly, without ambiguity, and that you’ve removed any unnecessary or repetitive information. Here are some tips to help you do this:

• Use short sentences and active voice to make your points clear.
• Break up long paragraphs into smaller ones for easier reading.
• Double-check your spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
• Make sure that your points are stated in a logical and organized manner.

Request Peer Review

Once you’re satisfied with your self-evaluation, consider asking a trusted colleague or manager to review it. This can provide you with valuable feedback and help ensure that your evaluation is well-rounded, accurate, and unbiased. Keep these points in mind when requesting a peer review:

• Choose someone who knows your work well and has a clear understanding of your job responsibilities.
• Ask them to review your evaluation for clarity, accuracy, and comprehensiveness.
• Be open to constructive feedback, and make any necessary revisions based on their input.

By following these steps for finalizing your self-evaluation, you’ll have a stronger, more polished document that effectively highlights your accomplishments, areas for improvement, and goals for the future. This will provide a solid foundation for discussing your performance with your manager and creating a clear roadmap for professional growth.

Frequently Asked Questions

What are some helpful tips for writing an impactful self-evaluation.

When writing a self-evaluation, always be honest and specific about your accomplishments and goals. Provide examples and use metrics to quantify your achievements whenever possible. Reflect on areas where you can improve and create a plan for personal development. Use positive language, keep it concise and focused, and don’t forget to mention any feedback you’ve received from coworkers, clients, or managers.

Can you give examples of strong points to highlight in a self-evaluation?

Some powerful points you can emphasize in a self-evaluation include successful project management, exceeding targets or goals, implementing new processes that improve efficiency, demonstrating strong teamwork, and receiving positive client or coworker feedback. Tailor your examples to highlight your unique strengths and align with your role and company goals.

How would one describe their personal achievements in a self-assessment for a performance review?

To describe personal achievements effectively in a self-assessment, be results-oriented, and show the impact of your accomplishments. Use specific examples to illustrate your success and demonstrate how these achievements contributed to your team or company goals. If possible, quantify your results through metrics or figures to give a clear picture of your performance.

Could you provide a sample paragraph of a self-evaluation for a senior management position?

“Over the past year, as the Senior Manager of the (…) team, I have successfully launched three major projects that resulted in a 25% increase in revenue. My leadership style has fostered a collaborative environment, with my team consistently achieving all targets on time. I have also implemented training initiatives to develop team members’ skillsets, and our client satisfaction rate has increased by 15%. I plan to focus on further expanding our project portfolio and mentoring junior managers to strengthen the team’s leadership capabilities.”

What could be good sentence starters for framing self-evaluation points?

• During my time in this role, I have accomplished…
• One area I have excelled in is…
• An example of a significant contribution is…
• I demonstrated strong problem-solving skills when I…
• My collaboration with coworkers has led to…
• In terms of improvement, I plan to focus on…
• Over the past year, my growth has been evident in…
• Self Evaluation Examples [Complete Guide]
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How to Write a Self Evaluation (With Examples)

First step, be honest about your hits and misses.

Writing about yourself, especially if those words are going to be part of your permanent work record, can be daunting. But it doesn’t have to be. In fact, self evaluations give you a voice in your performance review , and they’re opportunities to outline your career goals and get help in reaching them.

What Is a Self Evaluation?

Self evaluations are performance assessments that both employees and managers complete. They can be done quarterly, semi-annually or annually, and range from open-ended questions discussed to ratings given on a numeric scale.

Below, we’ll examine self evaluation benefits, tips and examples, plus how both employees and managers can complete them successfully.

A  self evaluation , sometimes called a self-assessment performance review, is a time where you and your manager get together to rate your performance over a given time span, either using a numerical scale or by answering open-ended questions. You complete the evaluation and so does your manager. During the performance review , the two of you compare notes to arrive at a final evaluation.

Benefits of Self Evaluations 

1. help employees and managers prepare for performance reviews.

Completing a self evaluation can help guide the eventual performance-review conversation in a structured, but meaningful, way. It also helps both parties get an idea of what needs to be discussed during a performance review, so neither feels caught off guard by the conversation.

2. Give Employees an Opportunity to Reflect on Their Progress

Since self evaluations are inherently reflective, they allow employees to identify and examine their strengths and weaknesses. This helps employees both know their worth to an organization and what they still have left to learn. 

“Self evaluations enable employees to see their work in its entirety,” Jill Bowman, director of people at fintech company Octane , told Built In. “They ensure that employees reflect on their high points throughout the entire year and to assess their progress towards achieving predetermined objectives and goals.”

3. Help Managers Track Employee Accomplishments

Employee self assessments help managers more accurately remember each employee’s accomplishments. “As many managers often have numerous direct reports, it provides a useful summary of the achievements of each member,” Bowman said.

4. Improve Employee Satisfaction

Academic literature indicates that employees are more satisfied with evaluations that involve two-way communication and encourage a conversation between manager and employee, according to Thomas Begley, professor of management at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute . 

The thing is, employees have to trust that the process is fair, Begley told Built In. If they believe it is, and they’re treated fairly and respectfully during the process, employees react positively to self evaluations.

5. Can Decrease Employee Turnover

Some companies see tangible results from self evaluations. For example, Smarty , an address-verification company, enjoys low staff turnover, said Rob Green, chief revenue officer. The self-evaluation method, coupled with a strong focus on a communication-based corporate culture, has resulted in a 97 percent retention rate, Green told Built In.

Related How to Be More Confident in Performance Reviews

How to Write a Self Evaluation

The ability to write a solid self evaluation is a critical career skill.

“Self evaluations give you a platform to influence your manager and in many cases, reframe the nature of the relationship with your manager,” Richard Hawkes, CEO and founder of Growth River , a leadership and management consulting company, told Built In. “And all results in business happen in the context of relationships.”

Below are some tips on how to complete a self evaluation.

1. Track Your Work and Accomplishments

Daily or weekly tracking of your work can help you keep track of your progress and also prevent last-minute panic at performance evaluation time, said Peter Griscom, CEO at Tradefluence . “Strip down the questions to two or three, and just ask yourself, ‘How well did I communicate today?’ ‘How well did I solve problems today?’ ‘What have I achieved today?’” Griscom told Built In. “Get in the habit of writing those things out and keeping track and over time.”

2. Answer Honestly  

For his first self evaluation, Griscom remembers wondering how to best answer the questions. After he asked his manager for guidance, Griscom answered the questions as accurately as he could. “What came out of it was really valuable, because it gave me a chance to reflect on my own achievements and think about where I can improve,” he said. “It forced me to do the thinking instead of just accepting feedback.”

3. Highlight Your Achievements

If your boss has a handful of direct reports, chances are good they haven’t noticed each of your shining moments during a review period. This is your chance to spotlight yourself. Quotas exceeded, projects finished ahead of schedule, fruitful mentoring relationships, processes streamlined — whatever you’ve done, share it, and don’t be shy about it, said Alexandra Phillips , a leadership and management coach. Women, especially, tend not to share achievements and accomplishments as loudly or often as they should. “Make sure your manager has a good sense of where you’ve had those wins, large and small, because sometimes they can fly under the radar,” Phillips told Built In.

4. Admit Weaknesses and How You Have Grown 

If you’ve made a whopper mistake since your past review, mention it — and be sure to discuss what you’ve learned from it. Chances are good your manager knows you made a mistake, and bringing it up gives you the opportunity to provide more context to the situation.

5. Acknowledge Areas of Improvement

Be prepared for your manager to point out a few areas for improvement. This is where career growth happens. “If you want something,” whether it’s a promotion or move to another department, “you need to know how to get there,” Phillips said.

More on Self Evaluations Self-Evaluations Make Stronger Leaders. Here’s How to Write One.

Self Evaluation Examples and Templates Answers

Still not sure what to do when you put pen to paper? Here are six open-ended self evaluation sample questions from the Society for Human Resource Management, as well as example answers you can use to prepare for your own self evaluation.

1. Job Performance Examples

List your most significant accomplishments or contributions since last year. How do these achievements align with the goals/objectives outlined in your last review?

How to answer with positive results:

In the past year, I successfully led our team in finishing [project A]. I was instrumental in finding solutions to several project challenges, among them [X, Y and Z]. When Tom left the company unexpectedly, I was able to cover his basic tasks until a replacement was hired, thus keeping our team on track to meet KPIs.    I feel the above accomplishments demonstrate that I have taken more of a leadership role in our department, a move that we discussed during my last performance review.

How to answer with ways to improve:

Although I didn’t meet all of my goals in the last year, I am working on improving this by changing my workflow and holding myself accountable. I am currently working to meet my goals by doing [X, Y and Z] and I plan to have [project A] completed by [steps here]. I believe that I will be able to correct my performance through these actionable steps.

Describe areas you feel require improvement in terms of your professional capabilities. List the steps you plan to take and/or the resources you need to accomplish this.

I feel I could do better at moving projects off my desk and on to the next person without overthinking them or sweating details that are not mine to sweat; in this regard I could trust my teammates more. I plan to enlist your help with this and ask for a weekly 15-minute one-on-one meeting to do so.  

Identify two career goals for the coming year and indicate how you plan to accomplish them.

One is a promotion to senior project manager, which I plan to reach by continuing to show leadership skills on the team. Another is that I’d like to be seen as a real resource for the organization, and plan to volunteer for the committee to update the standards and practices handbook.

2. Leadership Examples

Since the last appraisal period, have you successfully performed any new tasks or additional duties outside the scope of your regular responsibilities? If so, please specify.

Yes. I have established mentoring relationships with one of the younger members of our team, as well as with a more seasoned person in another department. I have also successfully taken over the monthly all-hands meeting in our team, trimming meeting time to 30 minutes from an hour and establishing clear agendas and expectations for each meeting. Again, I feel these align with my goal to become more of a leader.

Since the last review period, I focused my efforts on improving my communication with our team, meeting my goals consistently and fostering relationships with leaders in other departments. Over the next six months, I plan on breaking out of my comfort zone by accomplishing [X, Y and Z].

What activities have you initiated, or actively participated in, to encourage camaraderie and teamwork within your group and/or office? What was the result?

I launched a program to help on-site and remote colleagues make Mondays more productive. The initiative includes segmenting the day into 25-minute parts to answer emails, get caught up on direct messages, sketch out to-do lists and otherwise plan for the week ahead. The result overall for the initiative is more of the team signs on to direct messages earlier in the day, on average 9:15 a.m. instead of the previous 10 a.m., and anecdotally, the team seems more enthusiastic about the week. I plan to conduct a survey later this month to get team input on how we can change up the initiative.

Although I haven’t had the chance to lead any new initiatives since I got hired, I recently had an idea for [A] and wanted to run it by you. Do you think this would be beneficial to our team? I would love to take charge of a program like this.

3. Professional Development Examples

Describe your professional development activities since last year, such as offsite seminars/classes (specify if self-directed or required by your supervisor), onsite training, peer training, management coaching or mentoring, on-the-job experience, exposure to challenging projects, other—please describe.

I completed a class on SEO best practices and shared what I learned from the seminar during a lunch-and-learn with my teammates. I took on a pro-bono website development project for a local nonprofit, which gave me a new look at website challenges for different types of organizations. I also, as mentioned above, started two new mentoring relationships.

This is something I have been thinking about but would like a little guidance with. I would love to hear what others have done in the past to help me find my footing. I am eager to learn more about [A] and [B] and would like to hear your thoughts on which courses or seminars you might recommend. 

Types of Self Evaluations

Self evaluations can include rating scale questions, open-ended questions or a hybrid of both. Each approach has its own set of pros and cons to consider.

1. Rating Self Evaluation

Rating scale self evaluations give a list of statements where employees are asked to rate themselves on a scale of one to five or one to ten (generally the higher the number, the more favorable the rating). 

For example, in Smarty’s self evaluations, it uses a tool called 3A+. This one calls for employees and managers to sit down and complete the evaluation together, at the same time. Employees rate themselves from 3, 2 or 1 (three being the best) on their capability in their role; A, B or C on their helpfulness to others, and plus or minus on their “diligence and focus” in their role. Managers rate the employees using the same scale. A “perfect” score would be 3A+, while an underperforming employee would rate 2B-.

At the performance evaluation meeting, managers and employees compare their ratings, and employees ask for feedback on how they can improve.

But rating systems can have their challenges that are often rooted in bias . For example, women are more likely to rate themselves lower than men. People from individualistic cultures, which emphasize individuals over community, will rate themselves higher than people from collectivist cultures, which place a premium on the group rather than the individual.

2. Open-Ended Question Self Evaluation

Open-ended questions ask employees to list their accomplishments, setbacks and goals in writing. The goal of open-ended questions is to get employees thinking deeply about their work and where they need to improve. 

Open-ended questions allow employees a true voice in the process, whereas “self ratings” can sometimes be unfair , Fresia Jackson, lead research people scientist at Culture Amp , told Built In. 

With open-ended questions, employees tend to be more forgiving with themselves, which can be both good and bad. Whatever result open ended questions bring about, they typically offer more fodder for discussion between employees and managers.

3. Hybrid Self Evaluation

Hybrid self evaluations combine both rating questions and open-ended questions, where employees assess their skills and accomplishments by using a number scale and by answering in writing. This type of self evaluation lets employees provide quantitative and qualitative answers for a more holistic reflection. 

Self-Evaluation Questions for Performance Reviews

If you’ve never done a self evaluation, or if you just need a refresher before your next performance review, looking over some examples of self evaluation questions — like the ones below — can be a helpful starting point.

Common Self-Evaluation Questions for Performance Reviews

• What are you most proud of?
• What would you do differently?
• How have you carried out the company’s mission statement?
• Where would you like to be a year from now?
• List your skills and positive attributes.
• List your accomplishments, especially those that impacted others or moved you toward goals.
• Think about your mistakes and what you’ve learned from them.
• What are your opportunities to grow through advancement and/or learning?
• How do the above tie to your professional goals?

Self-Evaluation Questions for Career Planning and Growth

• What are you interested in working on?
• What are you working on now?
• What do you want to learn more about?
• How can I as your manager better support you?
• What can the company do to support your journey?
• How can the immediate team support you?
• What can you do to better support the team and the company? 

Self-Evaluation Questions for Performance and Career Goals

• How did you perform in relation to your goals?
• What level of positive impact did your performance have on the team?
• Did your performance have a positive impact on the business?
• What was your level of collaboration with other departments?
• What corporate value do you bring to life?
• What corporate value do you most struggle to align with?
• Summarize your strengths.
• Summarize your development areas.
• Summarize your performance/achievements during this year.
• How would you rate your overall performance this year? 

Related How to Set Professional Goals

How Should Managers Approach Self Evaluations?

It’s clear here that self evaluations, as a type of performance review, are more employee- than manager-driven. That said, managers are a key ingredient in this process, and the way managers handle self evaluations determines much about how useful they are and how well employees respond to them. To make sure they’re as effective as possible, consider these suggestions.

Train Managers on How to Use Evaluations

“If you don’t, there’s no point in doing them, because the manager is going to be the one driving the conversations,” Elisabeth Duncan, vice president of human resources at Evive, said. “Without training, the [evaluations] will be a checkbox and not meaningful.”

Don’t Use Ratings Formulaically

The results of self evaluations that employ a scale (say, one to five) can vary wildly, as one manager’s three is another manager’s five. Use the scale to identify and address discrepancies between the manager’s and employee’s answers, not to decide on raises or promotions across the company.

Hold Self Evaluations Often

They work best as career-development tools if they’re held semi-annually, quarterly or even more often. “It’s about an ongoing, consistent conversation,” Duncan said.

Tailor Them For Each Department

Competencies in sales very likely differ from competencies in tech, marketing and other departments. Competencies for junior-level employees probably differ wildly from those for senior managers. Self evaluations tailored to different employee populations will be more effective, and fairer.

Stress That the Rating Is Just the Start

The rating or the open-ended questions are the beginning of the evaluation process; they are not the process itself. “These are tools to trigger a conversation,” Duncan said.

Overall, think of self evaluations as a way to engage with your manager and your work in a way that furthers your career. Embrace the self evaluation and get good at writing them. In no time at all, you’ll find that they can be a productive way to reflect on yourself and your skillset.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is a self evaluation.

A self evaluation is a personal assessment used for employees to reflect on their strengths, weaknesses, accomplishments and overall progress during an allotted time on the job.

Self evaluations are often completed quarterly, semi-annually or annually, and can include numbered rating questions or open-ended written questions.

How do you write a good self evaluation?

An effective self evaluation is one where you highlight your achievements and instances of growth as well as areas for improvement during your given period of time at work. Tracking specific accomplishments and metrics can be especially helpful for writing a good self evaluation.

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Ultimate Guide to Writing a Self-Evaluation Essay

Self-evaluation essays are a type of writing assignment that asks people to think about their own skills, accomplishments, and performance. The goal of a self-evaluation essay is to give a full picture of one’s own strengths and weaknesses so that areas for improvement can be found and goals for personal and professional growth can be set.

Self-evaluation essays are an important part of both personal and professional growth. They give people a chance to think about how they’ve done and set goals for the future . By thinking about themselves, people can learn more about their strengths and weaknesses and make a plan for continuing to grow and get better.

In this complete guide to writing a self-evaluation essay, we’ll look at the most important parts , such as planning, writing, and editing. We’ll also give you advice on how to come up with ideas and organize them, as well as how to think about your own performance and what you’ve done well. By the end of this guide, readers will have the skills and knowledge they need to write effective and meaningful self-evaluation essays in a variety of situations.

What You'll Learn

Elements of a Self Evaluation Essay

A self evaluation essay typically includes the following elements:

1. The purpose of a self evaluation essay: The goal of a self-evaluation essay is to give a full picture of your skills, accomplishments, and areas where you can improve. In the essay, you should be honest and thoughtful about your own performance and set goals for personal and professional growth.

2. Reflection and self-assessment: A self evaluation essay requires individuals to reflect on their own performance and accomplishments. This may include reflecting on past experiences , identifying areas for improvement, and setting goals for the future.

3. Identification of strengths and weaknesses: In a self-evaluation essay, it’s important to talk about both your strengths and weaknesses. This could mean talking about what has been done well and what needs to be improved.

4. Goals and objectives for personal growth: In a self-evaluation essay, you should list specific goals and objectives for your own and your career’s growth. This could mean setting goals to improve skills, move up in your career, or take care of your own health .

5. Evidence and examples to support claims: The claims in a self-evaluation essay should be backed up by evidence and examples. This can include specific examples of accomplishments, feedback from others, or data to back up claims about skills or accomplishments.

Preparing to Write a Self Evaluation Essay

Before you start writing a self-evaluation essay, you should prepare by gathering information and evidence, coming up with ideas, and writing down your goals and objectives. Here are some tips for getting ready to write an essay about yourself:

1. Gathering information and evidence: Before you start writing, make sure you have all the information or proof you need to back up your claims. This could be your past performance reviews, comments from coworkers, or information about what you’ve done.

2. Brainstorming and outlining: Before you start writing, give yourself time to think of ideas and put them in order. Make a plan that includes the most important parts of a self-evaluation essay, such as reflection, identifying your strengths and weaknesses, and setting goals for your own growth.

3. Identifying goals and objectives: Before you start writing, you should set specific goals for your personal and professional growth. This could mean setting goals to improve skills, move up in your career, or take care of your own health.

4. Choosing a format and structure: Choose how your self-evaluation essay will look and be put together. This could mean choosing a chronological or thematic approach, or using a certain format or template.

By taking the time to prepare and gather information, individuals can write more effective and meaningful self evaluation essays that accurately reflect their own performance and accomplishments.

Writing a Self Evaluation Essay

When writing a self evaluation essay , it is important to follow a clear structure that includes an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. The following tips can help you to write an effective self evaluation essay:

1. Introduction: Begin with a hook that grabs the reader’s attention and provides context for the essay . Introduce the purpose of the essay and provide a thesis statement that summarizes your main argument.

2. Body paragraphs: The body of the essay should include several paragraphs that address different aspects of your performance, skills, and accomplishments. Use specific examples and evidence to support your claims and provide a clear and detailed reflection on your own performance.

3. Conclusion: Summarize your main points and restate your thesis statement. End with a statement that reflects on what you have learned from the self evaluation process and outlines your goals for personal and professional growth.

4. Tone and style: Use a professional and objective tone when writing a self evaluation essay. Avoid using overly emotional or defensive language, and focus on providing an honest and thoughtful reflection on your own performance.

5. Grammar and mechanics: Pay careful attention to grammar, mechanics, and spelling when writing a self evaluation essay. Use clear and concise language, and proofread your essay carefully to ensure that it is error-free.

Self Evaluation Essay Examples

To better understand how to write a self evaluation essay, it can be helpful to examine examples of effective essays . Here are some key takeaways from successfulself evaluation essays:

1. Sample self evaluation essay: A sample self evaluation essay can provide a helpful template for structuring your own essay. Look for essays that focus on specific goals or accomplishments, and use them as a guide for organizing your own essay.

2. Analysis of effective self evaluation essays: Analyze effective self evaluation essays to identify the key elements that make them successful. Look for essays that provide specific examples and evidence to support claims , and that offer a clear and honest reflection on strengths and weaknesses.

3. Key takeaways from successful self evaluation essays : Successful self evaluation essays typically include a clear and well-structured introduction, detailed body paragraphs that provide specific examples and evidence, and a thoughtful conclusion that reflects on what has been learned and sets goals for future growth.

By studying examples of effective self evaluation essays and applying the tips and strategies outlined in this guide, individuals can write more effective and meaningful self evaluation essays that accurately reflect their own performance, skills, and accomplishments.

Self Evaluation Essay Topics

When choosing a topic for a self evaluation essay , consider areas where you have experienced personal growth, challenges, or accomplishments. Here are some potential topics to consider:

1. Personal achievements and challenges: Write about a personal achievement or challenge that you have experienced, and reflect on what you learned from the experience.

2. Educational and career goals: Write about your educational or career goals, and reflect on the progress you have made toward achieving them.

3. Personal growth and development: Write about a specific area where you have experienced personal growth and development, such as communication skills or leadership abilities.

4. Strengths and weaknesses: Write about your strengths and weaknesses, and reflect on how they have impacted your personal and professional life.

5. Critical reflection on experiences: Write about a specific experience that has had a significant impact on your life, and reflect on what you have learned from the experience.

Self Evaluation Essay Outline

A clear and well-organized outline is essential for writing an effective self evaluation essay . Here are some tips for creating an effective outline:

1. Basic outline structure: Your outline should include an introduction, several body paragraphs, and a conclusion.

2. Tips for creating an effective outline: Start by brainstorming and organizing your thoughts into a logical sequence. Use bullet points or short phrases to outline the key ideas in each section of your essay . Make sure that your outline includes specific examples and evidence to support your claims.

3. Examples of selfevaluation essay outlines: Here is an example of a basic outline structure for a self evaluation essay:

I. Introduction

   A. Hook

   B. Context

   C. Thesis statement

II. Body Paragraphs

   A. Reflection on personal achievements and challenges

      1. Examples and evidence to support claims

      2. Reflection on what was learned

   B. Discussion of educational and career goals

      1. Progress made toward achieving goals

      2. Reflection on areas for improvement

   C. Analysis of personal growth and development

      1. Specific areas of growth

      2. Reflection on how growth has impacted personal and professional life

   D. Identification of strengths and weaknesses

      1. Discussion of strengths and how they have contributed to success

      2. Discussion of weaknesses and how they have been addressed

   E. Critical reflection on experiences

      1. Discussion of a specific experience

      2. Reflection on what was learned from the experience

III. Conclusion

   A. Summary of main points

   B. Reflection on what was learned from the self evaluation process

   C. Goals for personal and professional growth

By following a clear and well-organized outline, individuals can write more effective and meaningful self evaluation essays that accurately reflect their own performance, skills, and accomplishments.

Self Evaluation Essay Thesis

An important part of a self-evaluation essay is a thesis statement. It gives a clear and concise summary of the main point or argument of the essay and helps the reader figure out what to do with the rest of the essay. Here are some tips for writing a strong thesis statement for a self-evaluation essay:

1. Purpose and importance of a thesis statement : The purpose of a thesis statement is to provide a roadmap for the rest of the essay. It should convey the main argument or focus of the essay , and provide a clear and concise summary of the key points that will be discussed.

2. Tips for crafting a strong thesis statement: To craft a strong thesis statement, start by brainstorming and organizing your thoughts. Identify the key themes or ideas that will be discussed in the essay , and use these to craft a clear and concise thesis statement. Make sure that your thesis statement is specific, focused, and relevant to the topic of the essay .

3. Examples of effective self evaluation essay thesis: Here are some examples of effective thesis statements for self evaluation essays:

– “Through reflecting on my personal achievements and challenges, I have gained a deeper understanding of my own strengths and weaknesses, and have identified opportunities for personal and professional growth.”

– “My educational and career goals have been shaped by my experiences and accomplishments, and I am committed to continuing to develop my skills and knowledge in order to achieve these goals.

– “Through engaging in critical reflection on my experiences, Ihave gained a greater appreciation for the value of personal growth and development, and have identified specific areas where I can continue to improve.”

Self Evaluation Essay Structure

A successful self evaluation essay should follow a clear and well-structured format. Here are some tips for structuring a successful self evaluation essay:

1. Introduction: The introduction should include a hook that grabs the reader’s attention, provide context for the essay, and include a clear and concise thesis statement that summarizes the main argument or focus of the essay .

2. Body paragraphs: The body of the essay should include several paragraphs that address different aspects of your performance, skills, and accomplishments. Use specific examples and evidence to support your claims, and provide a clear and detailed reflection on your own performance.

3. Conclusion: The conclusion should summarize the main points of the essay , restate the thesis statement, and provide a thoughtful reflection on what has been learned from the self evaluation process. It should also include goals for personal and professional growth.

4. Tips for structuring a successful self evaluation essay: To structure a successful self evaluation essay, organize your thoughts into a clear and logical sequence. Use specific examples and evidence to support your claims, and make sure that each paragraph focuses on a specific aspect of your performance or experience. Use transitions to connect ideas and ensure that the essay flows smoothly.

By following these tips and structuring your self evaluation essay in a clear and well-organized format, you can write an effective and meaningful essay that accuratelyreflects your own performance and accomplishments.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. what is a self evaluation essay.

A self-evaluation essay is a piece of writing in which the writer thinks about their own skills, accomplishments, and performance. The goal of a self-evaluation essay is to give a full picture of one’s own strengths and weaknesses so that areas for improvement can be found and goals for personal and professional growth can be set.

2. What are the elements of a self evaluation essay?

A self-evaluation essay usually includes reflection and self-assessment, identification of strengths and weaknesses, goals and objectives for personal growth, evidence and examples to support claims, and a clear and well-organized structure.

3. How do I choose a topic for a self evaluation essay?

When choosing a topic for a self-evaluation essay, think about areas in which you’ve grown, faced challenges, or done well. Personal successes and problems, educational and career goals, personal growth and development, strengths and weaknesses, and a critical look back on experiences are all possible topics .

4. How do I structure a self evaluation essay?

The format of a self-evaluation essay should be clear and well-structured, with an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. The introduction should have a hook, set the scene for the essay , and have a clear statement of the essay’s main point. The body of the essay should have several paragraphs that talk about different parts of your performance, skills, and accomplishments. The conclusion should summarize the main points of the essay and give goals for personal and professional growth.

5. What are some tips for writing a successful self evaluation essay?

Some tips for writing a good self-evaluation essay include gathering information and evidence, coming up with ideas and making an outline, identifying goals and objectives, using a professional and objective tone, paying attention to grammar and mechanics, and using specific examples and evidence to support claims.

Writing a self-evaluation essay can help you improve as a person and as a worker. By thinking about your own performance, skills, and accomplishments, you can learn more about your strengths and weaknesses and set goals for continuing to grow and get better. To write a good self-evaluation essay, you should stick to a clear and well-organized structure, use a professional and objective tone, and back up your claims with specific examples and evidence.

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How to Write an Effective Self-Assessment

by Marlo Lyons

Summary .   

Writing a self-assessment can feel like an afterthought, but it’s a critical part of your overall performance review. Managers with many direct reports likely won’t have visibility into or remember all of your notable accomplishments from the year, and they don’t have time to read a long recap. The author offers five steps for drafting a self-assessment that covers your most impactful accomplishments and demonstrates self-awareness through a lens of improvement and development: 1) Focus on the entire year; 2) consider company and functional goals; 3) look for alignment with those goals; 4) seek feedback from colleagues; and 5) draft a concise list of accomplishments.

It’s performance review season for many companies, which means it’s time to reflect on the year and draft a self-assessment of your accomplishments. Writing an impactful self-assessment will set the tone for your manager’s evaluation of your work, which can affect your compensation (e.g., merit increase, bonus, etc.).

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15 Self-Assessment Examples for Students

Dave Cornell (PhD)

Dr. Cornell has worked in education for more than 20 years. His work has involved designing teacher certification for Trinity College in London and in-service training for state governments in the United States. He has trained kindergarten teachers in 8 countries and helped businessmen and women open baby centers and kindergartens in 3 countries.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Chris Drew (PhD)

This article was peer-reviewed and edited by Chris Drew (PhD). The review process on Helpful Professor involves having a PhD level expert fact check, edit, and contribute to articles. Reviewers ensure all content reflects expert academic consensus and is backed up with reference to academic studies. Dr. Drew has published over 20 academic articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education and holds a PhD in Education from ACU.

Self-assessment is when we analyze our own behavior. It is a way for us to understand how we are doing at something.

People who self-assess will examine their current level of performance on a given dimension in order to see how they can improve.

We can compare our performance to a known standard or our own set of goals. That evaluation will enable us to identify our strengths and weaknesses, and help us chart a path of progress.

Self-assessment can be applied in just about any context. For example, we can assess our level of fitness, how we perform during a job interview, or if we are easy to work with, or not.

Definition of Self-Assessment

Brown and Harris (2013, p. 368) defined self-assessment in a school context as a “descriptive and evaluative act carried out by the student concerning his or her own work and academic abilities” . 

Making a judgment regarding our own abilities is easier said than done. If we want to know the truth, then we need an objective assessment.

That’s not easy to do when it comes to our own performance, because:

• Some people may have a positive bias about their abilities and give themselves high ratings when that might not be deserved.
• Other people are very critical of themselves and may be overly harsh.  

Ideally, evaluations should come from professionals with a lot of training and experience. However, that’s not always convenient and it can also be expensive. So, although self-assessments are not ideal, they are very practical.

Student Self-Assessment Examples

1. keeping a diary.

If you’re not sure how to self-assess, the first step could be to keep a diary of what you’ve been doing. This is a form of personal reflection that allows you to pause and assess your progress.

There are also some great self-assessment diaries out there, such as the various reflective teaching diaries, that provide prompting questions such as “what is your mood right now?” and “what’s something you did that you were proud of today?”

These moments of self-reflection also act as moments of self-assessment . While you reflect, you also pause to assess your actions and what you could have done differently to change outcomes next time. In this process, you can learn to more effectively self-regulate and incrementally improve.

2. Self-Reflection After a Meeting

None of us want to be labeled as “difficult” or “lazy”. So, after a meeting, it is a good idea to take a few moments and reflect on how we did. Were we attentive? Did we participate enough, or did we talk too much? Were we argumentative and unreasonable, or did we make constructive comments?

One of the most difficult challenges of work is getting along with colleagues. Everyone has an opinion, and everyone wants to pursue their own agenda.

In addition to that, everyone has a different personality. Some of those personalities might be difficult to deal with, day in and day out.

So, understanding how we are to work with is important.

Work consumes most of our lives. Having a successful career is essential to so many other aspects of our happiness. Therefore, reflecting on how we act in meetings can go a long way to helping us be more respectful and conciliatory.

See More: Self-Reflection Examples

3. Recording Your Presentation at Work

One form of self-assessment that can be extremely valuable is to record our presentations. It can be a sales pitch or product proposal, or just about anything else. There is probably no better way to evaluate our performance than recording it.

We can make observations about our intonation and rate of speech, in addition to our posture and any odd mannerisms we might exhibit. Of course, we can ask a trusted colleague to watch and give us a few insights as well.

Surprisingly, based on some research findings, there may not always be agreement between our self-assessment and what our peers think (Campbell et al., 2001).  

4. Filming your Sports Performance

In the same way that you can record a business presentation, you can also record yourself participating in sports to watch it back.

In fact, professional sportspeople and their coaches like tennis players, football players, and baseball batters will all film themselves to see how they performed.

They might be looking at their stance in tennis to see if they’ve got the right posture. In baseball, they may be looking at the position of the shoulders and elbows when the batter swings his bat. These observations can help shape a sportsperson’s self-concept so they have a realistic idea of their abilities.

By watching their actions, the sportspeople can assess their own actions and see themselves from a new perspective. It gives them the opportunity to see things about their actions that they couldn’t see in the moment.

5. Tracking Your Gym Workouts

Recording your daily workouts at the gym is another form of self-assessment. This will help you assess your current status and also help you become aware of your rate of progress.

Back in the old days, people used to carry clipboards around with them at the gym. After finishing each set, they would write down how much weight they lifted and the number of reps. It was also a good excuse to take a breather.

Of course, in this century, there’s an APP for that. Instead of using a paper worksheet and wooden pencil that was made by killing trees and destroys the environment, you can use an electronic version on your smartphone that was made with rare earth minerals and child labor.  

6. Tracking Personal Growth 

Personal growth is a long-term process. The goal is to make continuous progress over time. That can mean months or even years.

Over time, we can continuously make improvements in our sense of well-being, state of mind, or even our spirituality. 

Assessing your personal growth can be on any dimension of life you want. It can be about our sense of well-being, our level of knowledge, level of spirituality, or anything else that is deeply important to you.

First, you determine where you are now and where you want to be in the future. This will help you identify your goals and set targets. Make sure that your targets are realistic and feasible, and phrased in a way that is measurable. For example, don’t just say that you “want to learn more about history.” Instead, say that your goal is to take a university course or read two books on the Roman Empire.

Phrasing your personal growth goal in a concrete manner makes them easy to determine if they have been accomplished or not. Furthermore, when they are accomplished, you can see it, and this will help you build your own self-efficacy .

7. Using a Fitness App

There are so many fitness apps available today that you can find one, or a couple thousand, that will suit your needs just fine.

Generally speaking, these apps fall into one of three categories: nutrition, workout, and activity.

These apps will allow you to become more aware of your nutritional intake, chart your progress at the gym, or record how long and how far you walk or run. Fitness apps are a great way to assess if you are making progress on any of these health dimensions, or if you are just maintaining the status quo .

It’s an example of elf-assessment in the palm of your hand.

8. Participating in a Mock Job Interview

Before going into a job interview, people will often practice in a mock interview to self-assess their performance in order to improve before the big event!

Job interviews can be a bit stressful. There is a lot riding on your performance, especially if it is for a job that you really want. Plus, you only have one shot. If you fail the first interview, you will not get called back for another.

Many universities have career centers that offer students an opportunity to receive valuable coaching regarding their job interview performance. This involves going through a mock interview with an experienced professional.

Afterward, the coach and student will discuss the results together. Participating in a mock interview is a fantastic way to assess your strengths and weaknesses, and just might help you land a great job.

9. Comparing Your Work with Others  

One of the best ways to know how good you are is by comparing your performance with others. This is a kind of self-assessment by way of social comparison.

For example, after spending a ton of time on an essay, it is easy to be so immersed in it that you lose objectivity. You may think that you have really nailed it. However, instead of waiting to get the essay back from your teacher, it is a good idea to see an example of a paper that was already completed and evaluated as being very good.

You can then compare and contrast that essay with yours . Maybe the literature review in the really good essay went into much more detail than you thought was necessary. Or, maybe it contained charts and graphs that yours did not.

This form of self-assessment can be very informative.

10. Hiring a Life Coach

A life coach is an expert on helping people get the most out of their lives. A life coach can help someone improve their career, romantic relationship, or even offer advice on how to handle day-do-day affairs.

Every life coach is different, but generally speaking they will construct a very holistic assessment of a client by conducting in-depth conversations with them and maybe even make direct observations over an extended period of time. This will give them enough information to make suggestions and provide guidance. They will even take their services one step further and help the client implement those changes.  

So, if you are looking for a comprehensive assessment of your life, something that is also very practical and forward-looking, then a life coach may be exactly what you need.

11. Career Aptitude Test  

A career aptitude test is a simple questionnaire that asks about your interests, values, skills, and personality characteristics. It then uses that data to identify different careers that would be a good match to your profile.

It is a great self-assessment tool that can offer some career guidance. You can discover which professions are most suited to your unique profile. The results can be surprising. You just might discover that people like you do very well in a certain job you would have never considered before.

These sorts of self-assessments are often given to students graduating from high school. High school students are at a phase in their life where a decision about what sort of career they want to do is at the front of mind. So, it’s the perfect time to take one of these tests.

12. Taking the Big Five Personality Traits Inventory

A personality trait is a consistent way that a person acts and feels. The Big Five personality traits are considered to be the most commonly occurring. They consist of: extroversion, agreeableness, openness, conscientiousness , and neuroticism. Everyone has these 5 traits to one degree or another.

Research has investigated how these traits relate to an incredibly wide range of subject matter, from leadership style to quality of romantic relationships and everything in between. Not only are the Big Five consistent across diverse cultures, but they have considerable stability across the lifespan as well (Rantanen et al., 2007).

Fortunately, there are many versions of this inventory available online. Most have reasonable reliability and validity. So, if you wish to conduct a personality self-assessment, there are many options to choose from.

13. Using a Wellness Wheel

A Wellness Wheel is a form of self-assessment that examines all aspects of our life. Most wheels include seven dimensions: spiritual, emotional, professional, intellectual, social, physical, and environmental.

Wellness wheels are very popular because they can provide a snapshot of our current status from a broad perspective.

By examining the status of our life on these seven dimensions, we can increase our self-awareness . If that analysis leads to the conclusion that we need change, then the wellness wheel will show us wear to focus most of our effort.

The Wellness Wheel is an example of a very holistic approach to self-assessment. It doesn’t require a trained professional either, and many versions are available online.

14. Metacognitive Strategies

Metacognition refers to the act of thinking about thinking. It requires you to reflect on how you went about a task and identify pros, cons, and alternatives to the way you went about the task.

For example, if you had just had an argument with a friend, metacognition might involve reflecting on how you lost your cool and started saying things you regretted. You can think about why you followed that thought path, and how you might have been able to de-fuse the situation in the future.

Another example is reflecting on your own learning style. You may have tried to study for a test using reading, leading to a poor test score. Upon reflection, you may realize you were getting very tired when reading; and as a result, next time you are going to try to study by watching lecture videos instead of reading.

15. Taking a Myers-Briggs Test

A Myers-Briggs test is a personality test that can help you to understand your own personality and the personalities of others.

The test assesses you against 16 different personality types, and each type has its own strengths and weaknesses.

The Myers-Briggs test can help you to find out your own personality type, and it can also be used to improve communication and team work by understanding the different strengths and weaknesses of each personality type.

Thus, while the tool is doing the assessment, by self-administering this test, you’re actually self-evaluating in order to learn more about yourself and how you interact with the people around you.

Self-assessment can help us get a better handle on where we are in life or in our profession. Examining our status quo can help us identify our strengths and the areas that we should try to improve.

Self-assessment comes in many forms. It can include modern technology such as fitness apps, or old-school tech like making a video recording. There are also forms that don’t involve any technology at all. Hiring a real live person to be your life coach may be a bit pricey, but it is a long-term strategy that can be personal and totally centered on your needs.

No matter your preference or goals, there are many self-assessment methods available.

Andrade HL (2019) A Critical Review of Research on Student Self-Assessment. Frontiers in Education, 4(87). https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2019.00087

Brown, G. T., and Harris, L. R. (2013). Student self-assessment. In J. H. McMillan (Ed.), Sage Handbook of Research on Classroom Assessment , pp. 367-393. Los Angeles, CA: Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452218649.n21

Campbell, K. S., Mothersbaugh, D. L., Brammer, C., & Taylor, T. (2001). Peer versus self- assessment of oral business presentation performance. Business Communication Quarterly , 64 (3). https://doi.org/10.1177/108056990106400303

John, O. P., & Srivastava, S. (1999). The Big-Five trait taxonomy: History, measurement, and theoretical perspectives. In L. A. Pervin & O. P. John (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (Vol. 2, pp. 102–138). New York: Guilford Press.

Muntaner-Mas, A., Martinez-Nicolas, A., Lavie, C.J. et al. (2019). A systematic review of fitness apps and their potential clinical and sports utility for objective and remote assessment of cardiorespiratory fitness. Sports Medicine, 49 , 587–600. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-019-01084-y

Rantanen, J., Metsäpelto, R. L., Feldt, T., Pulkkinen, L. E. A., & Kokko, K. (2007). Long‐term stability in the Big Five personality traits in adulthood. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology , 48 (6), 511-518. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9450.2007.00609.x

• Dave Cornell (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/dave-cornell-phd/ 23 Achieved Status Examples
• Dave Cornell (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/dave-cornell-phd/ 25 Defense Mechanisms Examples
• Dave Cornell (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/dave-cornell-phd/ 15 Theory of Planned Behavior Examples
• Dave Cornell (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/dave-cornell-phd/ 18 Adaptive Behavior Examples

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 23 Achieved Status Examples
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 15 Ableism Examples
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 25 Defense Mechanisms Examples
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 15 Theory of Planned Behavior Examples

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Tips for Writing a Strong Self-Evaluation (With Examples)

Self-evaluations ask employees to reflect on (and often rate) their own performance over a set period of time.

While that sounds simple enough, it’s no secret that the self-assessment performance review process can be awkward. Singing our own praises may make our toes curl — and acknowledging where we’ve made mistakes in the past can feel uncomfortable or embarrassing.

So it seems like little wonder, then, that according to research by Gallup , 86% of employees say that they don’t find performance reviews helpful for driving improvement. Getting this part of the performance review right requires introspection, a non-judgmental attitude, and asking yourself the right questions to guide self-evaluation. 

To get things started, use our tips in this article to help guide your reflection process. Then, follow up with our Self-Evaluation Template to help you structure your written evaluation.

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What is a Self-Assessment Performance Review?

The self-assessment performance review is a key part of the performance management process. It’s a chance for self-reflection on your job performance, including your core strengths and areas for improvement. It also paints a picture for your manager of how you view yourself in relation to your team and the company as a whole, and surfaces any career aspirations or growth needs.

Self-assessment performance appraisals help employees see how their work contributes to the organization and their overall career aspirations, making them far more motivated to do their best work. They’re linked to increased employee performance, higher levels of job satisfaction, and improved employee engagement.

Benefits of employee self-evaluation include:

• Set goals more effectively: A 2020 study on managerial feedback found that focusing on future actions, rather than dwelling on past events, leads to better performance. When we evaluate our overall performance in the context of our professional development and progression, it helps us pinpoint the skill sets we need in the future.
• Eliminate performance review bias: A 2019 study on 30 years of performance management research found that when employees participate in the performance management process, it leads to greater satisfaction in the outcome. Employees were more likely to say the process felt fair and unbiased, because their participation created a two-way, collaborative process.
• Improve employee confidence: Our self-efficacy — or beliefs about how likely we are to succeed in a particular topic or learning opportunity — play an important role in how we perform. A 2021 study based on classroom learning found that when students reviewed their own performance, it boosted their confidence.
• Increase team alignment: Viewing your own performance in the context of how it contributes to your team’s overall goals helps highlight areas of misalignment in terms of processes or communication — meaning you can improve how your team works together. 

Benefits of Self-Evaluations 

Even if writing self-evaluations can be a challenge, the juice is worth the squeeze. Self-evaluations provide several key benefits for both employees and employers alike, including: 

• Self-Reflection: Employees can take time to reflect on their strengths, weaknesses, accomplishments, and areas for growth.
• Ownership and Accountability: By completing self-evaluations, employees take ownership of their performance. This fosters a sense of responsibility and involvement in their own development and career progression.
• Communication: Self-evaluations open up a dialogue between employees and managers. Employees can articulate their perspectives, while managers gain insight into how employees perceive their own contributions.
• Goal Alignment: Self-evaluations encourage employees to align their work with company goals and objectives. They can review their achievements in relation to broader team or organizational goals, ensuring they're on the right track.
• Continuous Improvement: Employees can identify areas for improvement and set realistic goals for the future. This encourages a growth mindset and fosters continuous learning.
• Employee Engagement: When employees feel their opinions and self-assessments are valued, it increases their engagement and motivation. It can also help reduce feelings of being overlooked in the performance review process.
• Mitigating Bias: Self-assessments can provide a more balanced perspective in performance reviews by giving employees the opportunity to also evaluate themselves. Managers can compare the self-evaluation with their own assessment to identify discrepancies and biases .

Incorporating self-evaluations into your performance management process fosters a more collaborative, transparent, and growth-oriented workplace.

What to Reflect On Before Writing an Employee Self-Assessment

Jumping into a self-evaluation might feel a little daunting. Taking a moment to do an informal review of your performance, progress, and goals can help you collect your thoughts when it’s time to write the real thing.

In the spirit of continuous feedback and the performance review process , consider your metrics of success for your own performance — whether that’s a quantitative measure like KPIs and OKRs, or more qualitative, such as your emotions and feelings about the last year.

Make sure you write down specific examples of any skills learned, goals met, or targets hit, so that you’re well-prepared for the next performance review cycle.

Here are our five best practices to get this process right.

1. Identify how you really feel. 

Start by figuring out how you actually feel about your overall performance without the pressure of presenting these thoughts in a professional context. 

Try taking some notes or consulting a trusted friend or peer about how you feel you’ve performed over the last quarter or year. Acknowledge the full spectrum of your experiences, including any specific examples you might feel hesitant to highlight in your formal performance review.

Coming up with an unfiltered version will help you understand how your perspective comes across, and you can always make edits once you start writing.‍

2. Review your goals.

Setting goals — and feeling motivated to achieve them — is the cornerstone of doing your best work. Review how you performed against your most recent goals. Did you meet, exceed, or struggle to meet expectations?

For each goal, evaluate yourself based on the following questions:

• Why did you meet — or struggle to meet — this goal?
• When you didn’t meet a goal, what blockers made progress difficult?
• Was this goal clear, specific, and challenging enough? Why?
• Thinking about the goals you struggled to meet, what could you improve on to meet goals like this in future?
• Thinking about the goals you achieved, how can you build on this success to set a new goal?

As you reflect on goal progress, use your objectives and key results (OKRs) to provide a framework for your self-assessment, adding details and examples from the past year that contextualize your progress or challenges.

3. Review your manager’s feedback. 

Your performance review is an opportunity to check in with your manager about your progress and have a dialogue on what’s next. But it’s also an opportunity for you to provide additional context on anything that might have improved or hindered your performance and goal accomplishment. 

Look at recent one-on-ones or manager feedback from previous check-ins for guidance. What did your manager highlight or praise? Was there any constructive feedback on your performance?

Make sure you reference your accomplishments in your review and highlight what you did well. For areas that need improvement, provide additional context for any questions you think your manager might ask, and share any details about how you approached a project or situation that shed light on its outcome. Reflect on how you grew, and your plans to continue improving. 

4. ‍ Review notes from peers and coworkers. 

Peer feedback isn’t just great for professional development and surfacing new performance perspectives — it’s also vital for fostering the environment needed for great teamwork. In fact, one 2015 study on employee recognition found that praise from team members can have twice the impact on your wellbeing at work compared with manager feedback.

Evaluating feedback from peers can help you see how you’ve supported your team’s overall goals, as well as highlighting your progress on any non-technical skills — like problem-solving or communication — that build a more complete picture of your progress in the last year. Look through any past performance reviews, emails, personal messages, team meeting slide decks, or your company’s Praise Wall to collate a balanced view of how your peers see you.

Evaluate your progress by considering the following questions:

• How have you helped team members and peers deliver on their goals?
• Were there any specific instances or projects where team members praised your contributions?
• How have you followed through on team expectations?
• How would you rate your teamwork and collaboration skills?

Find more question examples in our Peer Review Template .

How to Write a Self-Evaluation for Performance Reviews

Once you’re ready to write your self-appraisal, you’ll want to collate everything you’ve noted during the reflection process, and start crafting your highlight reel that outlines all of your accomplishments since your last review.

To get started, use your job description as a guide. Evaluate how you meet each of the core competencies and skill sets, pointing to specific examples when you demonstrated each. While you write, work through the following topics:

• Role in the wider team: How does your work connect to the bigger picture? What kind of teammate are you?
• Unique selling point: What do you contribute that sets you apart? How is your team unable to function without you?
• Key results: Review any OKRs. What key results did or didn’t you achieve? Why or why not?
• Areas for improvement: Things can change for the better after a performance evaluation. What does that look like for you?

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Examples of How to Talk about Your Accomplishments in Your Self-Assessment

Many folks worry about sounding braggy in a self-review. And while it might feel uncomfortable to sing your own praises, try writing it like you’re advocating for someone else to show what you’re capable of.

Talk about the cause and effect of your actions on projects, and make sure to reference praise you’ve gotten from others. Include business outcomes, quotes from happy customers, and any tangible data. Talk assertively about your accomplishments like they’re facts.

Try using these self-evaluation examples to help you guide your review.

‍Goal Accomplishment

• “I set an OKR this year to grow our social channels 20%, but I exceeded that goal by growing them 40%.” 
• “My contribution to project X has helped increase customer NPS 10x.” 
• “Project Y has streamlined our process and saved time across teams.” 
• “Project Z will bring in more and better-qualified leads.” 
• “I accomplished a personal developmental goal to learn a new skill by working alongside peers in a different department.”

Project Management

• “I demonstrate strong time management skills when hitting project deadlines.”
• “I communicate project updates with all team members and relevant stakeholders in a timely manner.”
• “When running project X, I was effective at delegating tasks and following up on work to make sure our team stayed on deadline.”
• “I am effective at taking ownership of new projects and managing their successful completion.”

Team Support and Enablement

• “I always review my team member’s work within 24 hours of being asked.” 
• “Because of my feedback on this project, XYZ was completed faster.” 
• “I supported the success of our customer conference by being a speaker, and received praise from our VP of Marketing.”
• “I go above and beyond to make sure our team operates at its best, and I regularly provide help and support to team members when working on a collective goal.”

Non-Technical Skills

• “My problem-solving skills helped overcome a key strategic challenge in a recent project.”
• “Because of my effective decision-making skills, we were able to complete project XYZ in a timely manner.”
• “I regularly contribute my ideas and perspectives in team meetings to help boost our team’s output and goal accomplishment.”
• “I’m successful at staying on top of my to-do list, and regularly communicate progress with team members on shared projects.”

Ongoing Contributions

• “I maintain and moderate a critical daily community discussion channel.” 
• “I reach out to prospects early in the morning, since they’re in a different time zone than I am.”
• “I send out a weekly update to the entire organization about my project or function.”
• “I helped launch and manage a new Employee Resource Group that supports our LGBTQ+ employees.”

Examples of How to Talk About Areas of Improvement

It can be hard to talk about your mistakes or recognize room for improvement in aspects of your work. For this reason, tone is particularly important when it comes to this portion of your self-assessment.

When talking about any areas for improvement, focus on honesty, and try not to be defensive, minimize errors, or blame others in your self-evaluation. Remember that everything you say is from your own perspective, so it’s a good practice to phrase things accordingly, such as “I found out I benefit from x”, or “I found I work best in x conditions”. 

Reflecting on where you need to improve can also be a perfect opportunity to talk about how you want to grow in your career or improve in your job. When talking about mistakes or known problems during the review period, stay positive and emphasize the solution and next steps. You want to position yourself as a problem-solver with self-awareness.

For example, perhaps you weren’t prepared to take on a task because you weren’t trained. Propose enrolling in a class to help you step up your career development and take on more responsibilities.

When reflecting on your areas for improvement, try emulating the following examples:

• “I can sometimes struggle to take the lead in project management scenarios. I’d really like to take on some leadership skills classes to help me develop.”
• “I find it hard to share my ideas with team members on how to approach a project or piece of work, because I get overwhelmed when talking in a larger group. This year, I’d really like to learn how to develop my confidence with some mentoring.”
• “I made a scheduling mistake that contributed to a delay on our team’s recent project. I learned better time management skills as a result and have a plan to manage these situations better in future.”
• “I struggle with my presentation skills in front of a large audience. Is there someone in our wider team I can learn from?”

Crafting a Roadmap for Future Progression

Your self-assessment is a chance to be your own biggest advocate. As you work through the review process, try not to look at it as exposing your weaknesses, past failures, or mistakes. Instead, look at it as an opportunity, with your manager’s help, to take ownership of your career path, celebrate your wins, and unravel any niggling issues.

Working through this collaborative process should feel like a conversation with your manager that gives you a roadmap to help you perform at your very best in the future. For more support, download our Self-Evaluation Template . 

Key Takeaways

• Your self-assessment is a chance to be your own advocate.
• Track achievements year round to make the process easier.
• Include specific examples of any skills learned or goals met.
• If you’re stuck on what to write, consult manager and peer feedback.

Tip: When writing your self-evaluation, don’t only highlight traditional performance measures — like goals achieved or tasks completed — but also to reflect on how you've embodied the company's core values in your work. Think about specific actions you took that aligned with the values and how they contributed to team or company success. Demonstrating alignment with these values shows that you're not just delivering results, but also reinforcing the principles that move the company forward.

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SYSTEMATIC REVIEW article

A critical review of research on student self-assessment.

• Educational Psychology and Methodology, University at Albany, Albany, NY, United States

This article is a review of research on student self-assessment conducted largely between 2013 and 2018. The purpose of the review is to provide an updated overview of theory and research. The treatment of theory involves articulating a refined definition and operationalization of self-assessment. The review of 76 empirical studies offers a critical perspective on what has been investigated, including the relationship between self-assessment and achievement, consistency of self-assessment and others' assessments, student perceptions of self-assessment, and the association between self-assessment and self-regulated learning. An argument is made for less research on consistency and summative self-assessment, and more on the cognitive and affective mechanisms of formative self-assessment.

This review of research on student self-assessment expands on a review published as a chapter in the Cambridge Handbook of Instructional Feedback ( Andrade, 2018 , reprinted with permission). The timespan for the original review was January 2013 to October 2016. A lot of research has been done on the subject since then, including at least two meta-analyses; hence this expanded review, in which I provide an updated overview of theory and research. The treatment of theory presented here involves articulating a refined definition and operationalization of self-assessment through a lens of feedback. My review of the growing body of empirical research offers a critical perspective, in the interest of provoking new investigations into neglected areas.

Defining and Operationalizing Student Self-Assessment

Without exception, reviews of self-assessment ( Sargeant, 2008 ; Brown and Harris, 2013 ; Panadero et al., 2016a ) call for clearer definitions: What is self-assessment, and what is not? This question is surprisingly difficult to answer, as the term self-assessment has been used to describe a diverse range of activities, such as assigning a happy or sad face to a story just told, estimating the number of correct answers on a math test, graphing scores for dart throwing, indicating understanding (or the lack thereof) of a science concept, using a rubric to identify strengths and weaknesses in one's persuasive essay, writing reflective journal entries, and so on. Each of those activities involves some kind of assessment of one's own functioning, but they are so different that distinctions among types of self-assessment are needed. I will draw those distinctions in terms of the purposes of self-assessment which, in turn, determine its features: a classic form-fits-function analysis.

What is Self-Assessment?

Brown and Harris (2013) defined self-assessment in the K-16 context as a “descriptive and evaluative act carried out by the student concerning his or her own work and academic abilities” (p. 368). Panadero et al. (2016a) defined it as a “wide variety of mechanisms and techniques through which students describe (i.e., assess) and possibly assign merit or worth to (i.e., evaluate) the qualities of their own learning processes and products” (p. 804). Referring to physicians, Epstein et al. (2008) defined “concurrent self-assessment” as “ongoing moment-to-moment self-monitoring” (p. 5). Self-monitoring “refers to the ability to notice our own actions, curiosity to examine the effects of those actions, and willingness to use those observations to improve behavior and thinking in the future” (p. 5). Taken together, these definitions include self-assessment of one's abilities, processes , and products —everything but the kitchen sink. This very broad conception might seem unwieldy, but it works because each object of assessment—competence, process, and product—is subject to the influence of feedback from oneself.

What is missing from each of these definitions, however, is the purpose of the act of self-assessment. Their authors might rightly point out that the purpose is implied, but a formal definition requires us to make it plain: Why do we ask students to self-assess? I have long held that self-assessment is feedback ( Andrade, 2010 ), and that the purpose of feedback is to inform adjustments to processes and products that deepen learning and enhance performance; hence the purpose of self-assessment is to generate feedback that promotes learning and improvements in performance. This learning-oriented purpose of self-assessment implies that it should be formative: if there is no opportunity for adjustment and correction, self-assessment is almost pointless.

Why Self-Assess?

Clarity about the purpose of self-assessment allows us to interpret what otherwise appear to be discordant findings from research, which has produced mixed results in terms of both the accuracy of students' self-assessments and their influence on learning and/or performance. I believe the source of the discord can be traced to the different ways in which self-assessment is carried out, such as whether it is summative and formative. This issue will be taken up again in the review of current research that follows this overview. For now, consider a study of the accuracy and validity of summative self-assessment in teacher education conducted by Tejeiro et al. (2012) , which showed that students' self-assigned marks tended to be higher than marks given by professors. All 122 students in the study assigned themselves a grade at the end of their course, but half of the students were told that their self-assigned grade would count toward 5% of their final grade. In both groups, students' self-assessments were higher than grades given by professors, especially for students with “poorer results” (p. 791) and those for whom self-assessment counted toward the final grade. In the group that was told their self-assessments would count toward their final grade, no relationship was found between the professor's and the students' assessments. Tejeiro et al. concluded that, although students' and professor's assessments tend to be highly similar when self-assessment did not count toward final grades, overestimations increased dramatically when students' self-assessments did count. Interviews of students who self-assigned highly discrepant grades revealed (as you might guess) that they were motivated by the desire to obtain the highest possible grades.

Studies like Tejeiro et al's. (2012) are interesting in terms of the information they provide about the relationship between consistency and honesty, but the purpose of the self-assessment, beyond addressing interesting research questions, is unclear. There is no feedback purpose. This is also true for another example of a study of summative self-assessment of competence, during which elementary-school children took the Test of Narrative Language and then were asked to self-evaluate “how you did in making up stories today” by pointing to one of five pictures, from a “very happy face” (rating of five) to a “very sad face” (rating of one) ( Kaderavek et al., 2004 . p. 37). The usual results were reported: Older children and good narrators were more accurate than younger children and poor narrators, and males tended to more frequently overestimate their ability.

Typical of clinical studies of accuracy in self-evaluation, this study rests on a definition and operationalization of self-assessment with no value in terms of instructional feedback. If those children were asked to rate their stories and then revise or, better yet, if they assessed their stories according to clear, developmentally appropriate criteria before revising, the valence of their self-assessments in terms of instructional feedback would skyrocket. I speculate that their accuracy would too. In contrast, studies of formative self-assessment suggest that when the act of self-assessing is given a learning-oriented purpose, students' self-assessments are relatively consistent with those of external evaluators, including professors ( Lopez and Kossack, 2007 ; Barney et al., 2012 ; Leach, 2012 ), teachers ( Bol et al., 2012 ; Chang et al., 2012 , 2013 ), researchers ( Panadero and Romero, 2014 ; Fitzpatrick and Schulz, 2016 ), and expert medical assessors ( Hawkins et al., 2012 ).

My commitment to keeping self-assessment formative is firm. However, Gavin Brown (personal communication, April 2011) reminded me that summative self-assessment exists and we cannot ignore it; any definition of self-assessment must acknowledge and distinguish between formative and summative forms of it. Thus, the taxonomy in Table 1 , which depicts self-assessment as serving formative and/or summative purposes, and focuses on competence, processes, and/or products.

Table 1 . A taxonomy of self-assessment.

Fortunately, a formative view of self-assessment seems to be taking hold in various educational contexts. For instance, Sargeant (2008) noted that all seven authors in a special issue of the Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions “conceptualize self-assessment within a formative, educational perspective, and see it as an activity that draws upon both external and internal data, standards, and resources to inform and make decisions about one's performance” (p. 1). Sargeant also stresses the point that self-assessment should be guided by evaluative criteria: “Multiple external sources can and should inform self-assessment, perhaps most important among them performance standards” (p. 1). Now we are talking about the how of self-assessment, which demands an operationalization of self-assessment practice. Let us examine each object of self-assessment (competence, processes, and/or products) with an eye for what is assessed and why.

What is Self-Assessed?

Monitoring and self-assessing processes are practically synonymous with self-regulated learning (SRL), or at least central components of it such as goal-setting and monitoring, or metacognition. Research on SRL has clearly shown that self-generated feedback on one's approach to learning is associated with academic gains ( Zimmerman and Schunk, 2011 ). Self-assessment of the products , such as papers and presentations, are the easiest to defend as feedback, especially when those self-assessments are grounded in explicit, relevant, evaluative criteria and followed by opportunities to relearn and/or revise ( Andrade, 2010 ).

Including the self-assessment of competence in this definition is a little trickier. I hesitated to include it because of the risk of sneaking in global assessments of one's overall ability, self-esteem, and self-concept (“I'm good enough, I'm smart enough, and doggone it, people like me,” Franken, 1992 ), which do not seem relevant to a discussion of feedback in the context of learning. Research on global self-assessment, or self-perception, is popular in the medical education literature, but even there, scholars have begun to question its usefulness in terms of influencing learning and professional growth (e.g., see Sargeant et al., 2008 ). Eva and Regehr (2008) seem to agree in the following passage, which states the case in a way that makes it worthy of a long quotation:

Self-assessment is often (implicitly or otherwise) conceptualized as a personal, unguided reflection on performance for the purposes of generating an individually derived summary of one's own level of knowledge, skill, and understanding in a particular area. For example, this conceptualization would appear to be the only reasonable basis for studies that fit into what Colliver et al. (2005) has described as the “guess your grade” model of self-assessment research, the results of which form the core foundation for the recurring conclusion that self-assessment is generally poor. This unguided, internally generated construction of self-assessment stands in stark contrast to the model put forward by Boud (1999) , who argued that the phrase self-assessment should not imply an isolated or individualistic activity; it should commonly involve peers, teachers, and other sources of information. The conceptualization of self-assessment as enunciated in Boud's description would appear to involve a process by which one takes personal responsibility for looking outward, explicitly seeking feedback, and information from external sources, then using these externally generated sources of assessment data to direct performance improvements. In this construction, self-assessment is more of a pedagogical strategy than an ability to judge for oneself; it is a habit that one needs to acquire and enact rather than an ability that one needs to master (p. 15).

As in the K-16 context, self-assessment is coming to be seen as having value as much or more so in terms of pedagogy as in assessment ( Silver et al., 2008 ; Brown and Harris, 2014 ). In the end, however, I decided that self-assessing one's competence to successfully learn a particular concept or complete a particular task (which sounds a lot like self-efficacy—more on that later) might be useful feedback because it can inform decisions about how to proceed, such as the amount of time to invest in learning how to play the flute, or whether or not to seek help learning the steps of the jitterbug. An important caveat, however, is that self-assessments of competence are only useful if students have opportunities to do something about their perceived low competence—that is, it serves the purpose of formative feedback for the learner.

How to Self-Assess?

Panadero et al. (2016a) summarized five very different taxonomies of self-assessment and called for the development of a comprehensive typology that considers, among other things, its purpose, the presence or absence of criteria, and the method. In response, I propose the taxonomy depicted in Table 1 , which focuses on the what (competence, process, or product), the why (formative or summative), and the how (methods, including whether or not they include standards, e.g., criteria) of self-assessment. The collections of examples of methods in the table is inexhaustive.

I put the methods in Table 1 where I think they belong, but many of them could be placed in more than one cell. Take self-efficacy , for instance, which is essentially a self-assessment of one's competence to successfully undertake a particular task ( Bandura, 1997 ). Summative judgments of self-efficacy are certainly possible but they seem like a silly thing to do—what is the point, from a learning perspective? Formative self-efficacy judgments, on the other hand, can inform next steps in learning and skill building. There is reason to believe that monitoring and making adjustments to one's self-efficacy (e.g., by setting goals or attributing success to effort) can be productive ( Zimmerman, 2000 ), so I placed self-efficacy in the formative row.

It is important to emphasize that self-efficacy is task-specific, more or less ( Bandura, 1997 ). This taxonomy does not include general, holistic evaluations of one's abilities, for example, “I am good at math.” Global assessment of competence does not provide the leverage, in terms of feedback, that is provided by task-specific assessments of competence, that is, self-efficacy. Eva and Regehr (2008) provided an illustrative example: “We suspect most people are prompted to open a dictionary as a result of encountering a word for which they are uncertain of the meaning rather than out of a broader assessment that their vocabulary could be improved” (p. 16). The exclusion of global evaluations of oneself resonates with research that clearly shows that feedback that focuses on aspects of a task (e.g., “I did not solve most of the algebra problems”) is more effective than feedback that focuses on the self (e.g., “I am bad at math”) ( Kluger and DeNisi, 1996 ; Dweck, 2006 ; Hattie and Timperley, 2007 ). Hence, global self-evaluations of ability or competence do not appear in Table 1 .

Another approach to student self-assessment that could be placed in more than one cell is traffic lights . The term traffic lights refers to asking students to use green, yellow, or red objects (or thumbs up, sideways, or down—anything will do) to indicate whether they think they have good, partial, or little understanding ( Black et al., 2003 ). It would be appropriate for traffic lights to appear in multiple places in Table 1 , depending on how they are used. Traffic lights seem to be most effective at supporting students' reflections on how well they understand a concept or have mastered a skill, which is line with their creators' original intent, so they are categorized as formative self-assessments of one's learning—which sounds like metacognition.

In fact, several of the methods included in Table 1 come from research on metacognition, including self-monitoring , such as checking one's reading comprehension, and self-testing , e.g., checking one's performance on test items. These last two methods have been excluded from some taxonomies of self-assessment (e.g., Boud and Brew, 1995 ) because they do not engage students in explicitly considering relevant standards or criteria. However, new conceptions of self-assessment are grounded in theories of the self- and co-regulation of learning ( Andrade and Brookhart, 2016 ), which includes self-monitoring of learning processes with and without explicit standards.

However, my research favors self-assessment with regard to standards ( Andrade and Boulay, 2003 ; Andrade and Du, 2007 ; Andrade et al., 2008 , 2009 , 2010 ), as does related research by Panadero and his colleagues (see below). I have involved students in self-assessment of stories, essays, or mathematical word problems according to rubrics or checklists with criteria. For example, two studies investigated the relationship between elementary or middle school students' scores on a written assignment and a process that involved them in reading a model paper, co-creating criteria, self-assessing first drafts with a rubric, and revising ( Andrade et al., 2008 , 2010 ). The self-assessment was highly scaffolded: students were asked to underline key phrases in the rubric with colored pencils (e.g., underline “clearly states an opinion” in blue), then underline or circle in their drafts the evidence of having met the standard articulated by the phrase (e.g., his or her opinion) with the same blue pencil. If students found they had not met the standard, they were asked to write themselves a reminder to make improvements when they wrote their final drafts. This process was followed for each criterion on the rubric. There were main effects on scores for every self-assessed criterion on the rubric, suggesting that guided self-assessment according to the co-created criteria helped students produce more effective writing.

Panadero and his colleagues have also done quasi-experimental and experimental research on standards-referenced self-assessment, using rubrics or lists of assessment criteria that are presented in the form of questions ( Panadero et al., 2012 , 2013 , 2014 ; Panadero and Romero, 2014 ). Panadero calls the list of assessment criteria a script because his work is grounded in research on scaffolding (e.g., Kollar et al., 2006 ): I call it a checklist because that is the term used in classroom assessment contexts. Either way, the list provides standards for the task. Here is a script for a written summary that Panadero et al. (2014) used with college students in a psychology class:

• Does my summary transmit the main idea from the text? Is it at the beginning of my summary?

• Are the important ideas also in my summary?

• Have I selected the main ideas from the text to make them explicit in my summary?

• Have I thought about my purpose for the summary? What is my goal?

Taken together, the results of the studies cited above suggest that students who engaged in self-assessment using scripts or rubrics were more self-regulated, as measured by self-report questionnaires and/or think aloud protocols, than were students in the comparison or control groups. Effect sizes were very small to moderate (η 2 = 0.06–0.42), and statistically significant. Most interesting, perhaps, is one study ( Panadero and Romero, 2014 ) that demonstrated an association between rubric-referenced self-assessment activities and all three phases of SRL; forethought, performance, and reflection.

There are surely many other methods of self-assessment to include in Table 1 , as well as interesting conversations to be had about which method goes where and why. In the meantime, I offer the taxonomy in Table 1 as a way to define and operationalize self-assessment in instructional contexts and as a framework for the following overview of current research on the subject.

An Overview of Current Research on Self-Assessment

Several recent reviews of self-assessment are available ( Brown and Harris, 2013 ; Brown et al., 2015 ; Panadero et al., 2017 ), so I will not summarize the entire body of research here. Instead, I chose to take a birds-eye view of the field, with goal of reporting on what has been sufficiently researched and what remains to be done. I used the references lists from reviews, as well as other relevant sources, as a starting point. In order to update the list of sources, I directed two new searches 1 , the first of the ERIC database, and the second of both ERIC and PsychINFO. Both searches included two search terms, “self-assessment” OR “self-evaluation.” Advanced search options had four delimiters: (1) peer-reviewed, (2) January, 2013–October, 2016 and then October 2016–March 2019, (3) English, and (4) full-text. Because the focus was on K-20 educational contexts, sources were excluded if they were about early childhood education or professional development.

The first search yielded 347 hits; the second 1,163. Research that was unrelated to instructional feedback was excluded, such as studies limited to self-estimates of performance before or after taking a test, guesses about whether a test item was answered correctly, and estimates of how many tasks could be completed in a certain amount of time. Although some of the excluded studies might be thought of as useful investigations of self-monitoring, as a group they seemed too unrelated to theories of self-generated feedback to be appropriate for this review. Seventy-six studies were selected for inclusion in Table S1 (Supplementary Material), which also contains a few studies published before 2013 that were not included in key reviews, as well as studies solicited directly from authors.

The Table S1 in the Supplementary Material contains a complete list of studies included in this review, organized by the focus or topic of the study, as well as brief descriptions of each. The “type” column Table S1 (Supplementary Material) indicates whether the study focused on formative or summative self-assessment. This distinction was often difficult to make due to a lack of information. For example, Memis and Seven (2015) frame their study in terms of formative assessment, and note that the purpose of the self-evaluation done by the sixth grade students is to “help students improve their [science] reports” (p. 39), but they do not indicate how the self-assessments were done, nor whether students were given time to revise their reports based on their judgments or supported in making revisions. A sentence or two of explanation about the process of self-assessment in the procedures sections of published studies would be most useful.

Figure 1 graphically represents the number of studies in the four most common topic categories found in the table—achievement, consistency, student perceptions, and SRL. The figure reveals that research on self-assessment is on the rise, with consistency the most popular topic. Of the 76 studies in the table in the appendix, 44 were inquiries into the consistency of students' self-assessments with other judgments (e.g., a test score or teacher's grade). Twenty-five studies investigated the relationship between self-assessment and achievement. Fifteen explored students' perceptions of self-assessment. Twelve studies focused on the association between self-assessment and self-regulated learning. One examined self-efficacy, and two qualitative studies documented the mental processes involved in self-assessment. The sum ( n = 99) of the list of research topics is more than 76 because several studies had multiple foci. In the remainder of this review I examine each topic in turn.

Figure 1 . Topics of self-assessment studies, 2013–2018.

Consistency

Table S1 (Supplementary Material) reveals that much of the recent research on self-assessment has investigated the accuracy or, more accurately, consistency, of students' self-assessments. The term consistency is more appropriate in the classroom context because the quality of students' self-assessments is often determined by comparing them with their teachers' assessments and then generating correlations. Given the evidence of the unreliability of teachers' grades ( Falchikov, 2005 ), the assumption that teachers' assessments are accurate might not be well-founded ( Leach, 2012 ; Brown et al., 2015 ). Ratings of student work done by researchers are also suspect, unless evidence of the validity and reliability of the inferences made about student work by researchers is available. Consequently, much of the research on classroom-based self-assessment should use the term consistency , which refers to the degree of alignment between students' and expert raters' evaluations, avoiding the purer, more rigorous term accuracy unless it is fitting.

In their review, Brown and Harris (2013) reported that correlations between student self-ratings and other measures tended to be weakly to strongly positive, ranging from r ≈ 0.20 to 0.80, with few studies reporting correlations >0.60. But their review included results from studies of any self-appraisal of school work, including summative self-rating/grading, predictions about the correctness of answers on test items, and formative, criteria-based self-assessments, a combination of methods that makes the correlations they reported difficult to interpret. Qualitatively different forms of self-assessment, especially summative and formative types, cannot be lumped together without obfuscating important aspects of self-assessment as feedback.

Given my concern about combining studies of summative and formative assessment, you might anticipate a call for research on consistency that distinguishes between the two. I will make no such call for three reasons. One is that we have enough research on the subject, including the 22 studies in Table S1 (Supplementary Material) that were published after Brown and Harris's review (2013 ). Drawing only on studies included in Table S1 (Supplementary Material), we can say with confidence that summative self-assessment tends to be inconsistent with external judgements ( Baxter and Norman, 2011 ; De Grez et al., 2012 ; Admiraal et al., 2015 ), with males tending to overrate and females to underrate ( Nowell and Alston, 2007 ; Marks et al., 2018 ). There are exceptions ( Alaoutinen, 2012 ; Lopez-Pastor et al., 2012 ) as well as mixed results, with students being consistent regarding some aspects of their learning but not others ( Blanch-Hartigan, 2011 ; Harding and Hbaci, 2015 ; Nguyen and Foster, 2018 ). We can also say that older, more academically competent learners tend to be more consistent ( Hacker et al., 2000 ; Lew et al., 2010 ; Alaoutinen, 2012 ; Guillory and Blankson, 2017 ; Butler, 2018 ; Nagel and Lindsey, 2018 ). There is evidence that consistency can be improved through experience ( Lopez and Kossack, 2007 ; Yilmaz, 2017 ; Nagel and Lindsey, 2018 ), the use of guidelines ( Bol et al., 2012 ), feedback ( Thawabieh, 2017 ), and standards ( Baars et al., 2014 ), perhaps in the form of rubrics ( Panadero and Romero, 2014 ). Modeling and feedback also help ( Labuhn et al., 2010 ; Miller and Geraci, 2011 ; Hawkins et al., 2012 ; Kostons et al., 2012 ).

An outcome typical of research on the consistency of summative self-assessment can be found in row 59, which summarizes the study by Tejeiro et al. (2012) discussed earlier: Students' self-assessments were higher than marks given by professors, especially for students with poorer results, and no relationship was found between the professors' and the students' assessments in the group in which self-assessment counted toward the final mark. Students are not stupid: if they know that they can influence their final grade, and that their judgment is summative rather than intended to inform revision and improvement, they will be motivated to inflate their self-evaluation. I do not believe we need more research to demonstrate that phenomenon.

The second reason I am not calling for additional research on consistency is a lot of it seems somewhat irrelevant. This might be because the interest in accuracy is rooted in clinical research on calibration, which has very different aims. Calibration accuracy is the “magnitude of consent between learners' true and self-evaluated task performance. Accurately calibrated learners' task performance equals their self-evaluated task performance” ( Wollenschläger et al., 2016 ). Calibration research often asks study participants to predict or postdict the correctness of their responses to test items. I caution about generalizing from clinical experiments to authentic classroom contexts because the dismal picture of our human potential to self-judge was painted by calibration researchers before study participants were effectively taught how to predict with accuracy, or provided with the tools they needed to be accurate, or motivated to do so. Calibration researchers know that, of course, and have conducted intervention studies that attempt to improve accuracy, with some success (e.g., Bol et al., 2012 ). Studies of formative self-assessment also suggest that consistency increases when it is taught and supported in many of the ways any other skill must be taught and supported ( Lopez and Kossack, 2007 ; Labuhn et al., 2010 ; Chang et al., 2012 , 2013 ; Hawkins et al., 2012 ; Panadero and Romero, 2014 ; Lin-Siegler et al., 2015 ; Fitzpatrick and Schulz, 2016 ).

Even clinical psychological studies that go beyond calibration to examine the associations between monitoring accuracy and subsequent study behaviors do not transfer well to classroom assessment research. After repeatedly encountering claims that, for example, low self-assessment accuracy leads to poor task-selection accuracy and “suboptimal learning outcomes” ( Raaijmakers et al., 2019 , p. 1), I dug into the cited studies and discovered two limitations. The first is that the tasks in which study participants engage are quite inauthentic. A typical task involves studying “word pairs (e.g., railroad—mother), followed by a delayed judgment of learning (JOL) in which the students predicted the chances of remembering the pair… After making a JOL, the entire pair was presented for restudy for 4 s [ sic ], and after all pairs had been restudied, a criterion test of paired-associate recall occurred” ( Dunlosky and Rawson, 2012 , p. 272). Although memory for word pairs might be important in some classroom contexts, it is not safe to assume that results from studies like that one can predict students' behaviors after criterion-referenced self-assessment of their comprehension of complex texts, lengthy compositions, or solutions to multi-step mathematical problems.

The second limitation of studies like the typical one described above is more serious: Participants in research like that are not permitted to regulate their own studying, which is experimentally manipulated by a computer program. This came as a surprise, since many of the claims were about students' poor study choices but they were rarely allowed to make actual choices. For example, Dunlosky and Rawson (2012) permitted participants to “use monitoring to effectively control learning” by programming the computer so that “a participant would need to have judged his or her recall of a definition entirely correct on three different trials, and once they judged it entirely correct on the third trial, that particular key term definition was dropped [by the computer program] from further practice” (p. 272). The authors note that this study design is an improvement on designs that did not require all participants to use the same regulation algorithm, but it does not reflect the kinds of decisions that learners make in class or while doing homework. In fact, a large body of research shows that students can make wise choices when they self-pace the study of to-be-learned materials and then allocate study time to each item ( Bjork et al., 2013 , p. 425):

In a typical experiment, the students first study all the items at an experimenter-paced rate (e.g., study 60 paired associates for 3 s each), which familiarizes the students with the items; after this familiarity phase, the students then either choose which items they want to restudy (e.g., all items are presented in an array, and the students select which ones to restudy) and/or pace their restudy of each item. Several dependent measures have been widely used, such as how long each item is studied, whether an item is selected for restudy, and in what order items are selected for restudy. The literature on these aspects of self-regulated study is massive (for a comprehensive overview, see both Dunlosky and Ariel, 2011 and Son and Metcalfe, 2000 ), but the evidence is largely consistent with a few basic conclusions. First, if students have a chance to practice retrieval prior to restudying items, they almost exclusively choose to restudy unrecalled items and drop the previously recalled items from restudy ( Metcalfe and Kornell, 2005 ). Second, when pacing their study of individual items that have been selected for restudy, students typically spend more time studying items that are more, rather than less, difficult to learn. Such a strategy is consistent with a discrepancy-reduction model of self-paced study (which states that people continue to study an item until they reach mastery), although some key revisions to this model are needed to account for all the data. For instance, students may not continue to study until they reach some static criterion of mastery, but instead, they may continue to study until they perceive that they are no longer making progress.

I propose that this research, which suggests that students' unscaffolded, unmeasured, informal self-assessments tend to lead to appropriate task selection, is better aligned with research on classroom-based self-assessment. Nonetheless, even this comparison is inadequate because the study participants were not taught to compare their performance to the criteria for mastery, as is often done in classroom-based self-assessment.

The third and final reason I do not believe we need additional research on consistency is that I think it is a distraction from the true purposes of self-assessment. Many if not most of the articles about the accuracy of self-assessment are grounded in the assumption that accuracy is necessary for self-assessment to be useful, particularly in terms of subsequent studying and revision behaviors. Although it seems obvious that accurate evaluations of their performance positively influence students' study strategy selection, which should produce improvements in achievement, I have not seen relevant research that tests those conjectures. Some claim that inaccurate estimates of learning lead to the selection of inappropriate learning tasks ( Kostons et al., 2012 ) but they cite research that does not support their claim. For example, Kostons et al. cite studies that focus on the effectiveness of SRL interventions but do not address the accuracy of participants' estimates of learning, nor the relationship of those estimates to the selection of next steps. Other studies produce findings that support my skepticism. Take, for instance, two relevant studies of calibration. One suggested that performance and judgments of performance had little influence on subsequent test preparation behavior ( Hacker et al., 2000 ), and the other showed that study participants followed their predictions of performance to the same degree, regardless of monitoring accuracy ( van Loon et al., 2014 ).

Eva and Regehr (2008) believe that:

Research questions that take the form of “How well do various practitioners self-assess?” “How can we improve self-assessment?” or “How can we measure self-assessment skill?” should be considered defunct and removed from the research agenda [because] there have been hundreds of studies into these questions and the answers are “Poorly,” “You can't,” and “Don't bother” (p. 18).

I almost agree. A study that could change my mind about the importance of accuracy of self-assessment would be an investigation that goes beyond attempting to improve accuracy just for the sake of accuracy by instead examining the relearning/revision behaviors of accurate and inaccurate self-assessors: Do students whose self-assessments match the valid and reliable judgments of expert raters (hence my use of the term accuracy ) make better decisions about what they need to do to deepen their learning and improve their work? Here, I admit, is a call for research related to consistency: I would love to see a high-quality investigation of the relationship between accuracy in formative self-assessment, and students' subsequent study and revision behaviors, and their learning. For example, a study that closely examines the revisions to writing made by accurate and inaccurate self-assessors, and the resulting outcomes in terms of the quality of their writing, would be most welcome.

Table S1 (Supplementary Material) indicates that by 2018 researchers began publishing studies that more directly address the hypothesized link between self-assessment and subsequent learning behaviors, as well as important questions about the processes learners engage in while self-assessing ( Yan and Brown, 2017 ). One, a study by Nugteren et al. (2018 row 19 in Table S1 (Supplementary Material)), asked “How do inaccurate [summative] self-assessments influence task selections?” (p. 368) and employed a clever exploratory research design. The results suggested that most of the 15 students in their sample over-estimated their performance and made inaccurate learning-task selections. Nugteren et al. recommended helping students make more accurate self-assessments, but I think the more interesting finding is related to why students made task selections that were too difficult or too easy, given their prior performance: They based most task selections on interest in the content of particular items (not the overarching content to be learned), and infrequently considered task difficulty and support level. For instance, while working on the genetics tasks, students reported selecting tasks because they were fun or interesting, not because they addressed self-identified weaknesses in their understanding of genetics. Nugteren et al. proposed that students would benefit from instruction on task selection. I second that proposal: Rather than directing our efforts on accuracy in the service of improving subsequent task selection, let us simply teach students to use the information at hand to select next best steps, among other things.

Butler (2018 , row 76 in Table S1 (Supplementary Material)) has conducted at least two studies of learners' processes of responding to self-assessment items and how they arrived at their judgments. Comparing generic, decontextualized items to task-specific, contextualized items (which she calls after-task items ), she drew two unsurprising conclusions: the task-specific items “generally showed higher correlations with task performance,” and older students “appeared to be more conservative in their judgment compared with their younger counterparts” (p. 249). The contribution of the study is the detailed information it provides about how students generated their judgments. For example, Butler's qualitative data analyses revealed that when asked to self-assess in terms of vague or non-specific items, the children often “contextualized the descriptions based on their own experiences, goals, and expectations,” (p. 257) focused on the task at hand, and situated items in the specific task context. Perhaps as a result, the correlation between after-task self-assessment and task performance was generally higher than for generic self-assessment.

Butler (2018) notes that her study enriches our empirical understanding of the processes by which children respond to self-assessment. This is a very promising direction for the field. Similar studies of processing during formative self-assessment of a variety of task types in a classroom context would likely produce significant advances in our understanding of how and why self-assessment influences learning and performance.

Student Perceptions

Fifteen of the studies listed in Table S1 (Supplementary Material) focused on students' perceptions of self-assessment. The studies of children suggest that they tend to have unsophisticated understandings of its purposes ( Harris and Brown, 2013 ; Bourke, 2016 ) that might lead to shallow implementation of related processes. In contrast, results from the studies conducted in higher education settings suggested that college and university students understood the function of self-assessment ( Ratminingsih et al., 2018 ) and generally found it to be useful for guiding evaluation and revision ( Micán and Medina, 2017 ), understanding how to take responsibility for learning ( Lopez and Kossack, 2007 ; Bourke, 2014 ; Ndoye, 2017 ), prompting them to think more critically and deeply ( van Helvoort, 2012 ; Siow, 2015 ), applying newfound skills ( Murakami et al., 2012 ), and fostering self-regulated learning by guiding them to set goals, plan, self-monitor and reflect ( Wang, 2017 ).

Not surprisingly, positive perceptions of self-assessment were typically developed by students who actively engaged the formative type by, for example, developing their own criteria for an effective self-assessment response ( Bourke, 2014 ), or using a rubric or checklist to guide their assessments and then revising their work ( Huang and Gui, 2015 ; Wang, 2017 ). Earlier research suggested that children's attitudes toward self-assessment can become negative if it is summative ( Ross et al., 1998 ). However, even summative self-assessment was reported by adult learners to be useful in helping them become more critical of their own and others' writing throughout the course and in subsequent courses ( van Helvoort, 2012 ).

Achievement

Twenty-five of the studies in Table S1 (Supplementary Material) investigated the relation between self-assessment and achievement, including two meta-analyses. Twenty of the 25 clearly employed the formative type. Without exception, those 20 studies, plus the two meta-analyses ( Graham et al., 2015 ; Sanchez et al., 2017 ) demonstrated a positive association between self-assessment and learning. The meta-analysis conducted by Graham and his colleagues, which included 10 studies, yielded an average weighted effect size of 0.62 on writing quality. The Sanchez et al. meta-analysis revealed that, although 12 of the 44 effect sizes were negative, on average, “students who engaged in self-grading performed better ( g = 0.34) on subsequent tests than did students who did not” (p. 1,049).

All but two of the non-meta-analytic studies of achievement in Table S1 (Supplementary Material) were quasi-experimental or experimental, providing relatively rigorous evidence that their treatment groups outperformed their comparison or control groups in terms of everything from writing to dart-throwing, map-making, speaking English, and exams in a wide variety of disciplines. One experiment on summative self-assessment ( Miller and Geraci, 2011 ), in contrast, resulted in no improvements in exam scores, while the other one did ( Raaijmakers et al., 2017 ).

It would be easy to overgeneralize and claim that the question about the effect of self-assessment on learning has been answered, but there are unanswered questions about the key components of effective self-assessment, especially social-emotional components related to power and trust ( Andrade and Brown, 2016 ). The trends are pretty clear, however: it appears that formative forms of self-assessment can promote knowledge and skill development. This is not surprising, given that it involves many of the processes known to support learning, including practice, feedback, revision, and especially the intellectually demanding work of making complex, criteria-referenced judgments ( Panadero et al., 2014 ). Boud (1995a , b) predicted this trend when he noted that many self-assessment processes undermine learning by rushing to judgment, thereby failing to engage students with the standards or criteria for their work.

Self-Regulated Learning

The association between self-assessment and learning has also been explained in terms of self-regulation ( Andrade, 2010 ; Panadero and Alonso-Tapia, 2013 ; Andrade and Brookhart, 2016 , 2019 ; Panadero et al., 2016b ). Self-regulated learning (SRL) occurs when learners set goals and then monitor and manage their thoughts, feelings, and actions to reach those goals. SRL is moderately to highly correlated with achievement ( Zimmerman and Schunk, 2011 ). Research suggests that formative assessment is a potential influence on SRL ( Nicol and Macfarlane-Dick, 2006 ). The 12 studies in Table S1 (Supplementary Material) that focus on SRL demonstrate the recent increase in interest in the relationship between self-assessment and SRL.

Conceptual and practical overlaps between the two fields are abundant. In fact, Brown and Harris (2014) recommend that student self-assessment no longer be treated as an assessment, but as an essential competence for self-regulation. Butler and Winne (1995) introduced the role of self-generated feedback in self-regulation years ago:

[For] all self-regulated activities, feedback is an inherent catalyst. As learners monitor their engagement with tasks, internal feedback is generated by the monitoring process. That feedback describes the nature of outcomes and the qualities of the cognitive processes that led to those states (p. 245).

The outcomes and processes referred to by Butler and Winne are many of the same products and processes I referred to earlier in the definition of self-assessment and in Table 1 .

In general, research and practice related to self-assessment has tended to focus on judging the products of student learning, while scholarship on self-regulated learning encompasses both processes and products. The very practical focus of much of the research on self-assessment means it might be playing catch-up, in terms of theory development, with the SRL literature, which is grounded in experimental paradigms from cognitive psychology ( de Bruin and van Gog, 2012 ), while self-assessment research is ahead in terms of implementation (E. Panadero, personal communication, October 21, 2016). One major exception is the work done on Self-regulated Strategy Development ( Glaser and Brunstein, 2007 ; Harris et al., 2008 ), which has successfully integrated SRL research with classroom practices, including self-assessment, to teach writing to students with special needs.

Nicol and Macfarlane-Dick (2006) have been explicit about the potential for self-assessment practices to support self-regulated learning:

To develop systematically the learner's capacity for self-regulation, teachers need to create more structured opportunities for self-monitoring and the judging of progression to goals. Self-assessment tasks are an effective way of achieving this, as are activities that encourage reflection on learning progress (p. 207).

The studies of SRL in Table S1 (Supplementary Material) provide encouraging findings regarding the potential role of self-assessment in promoting achievement, self-regulated learning in general, and metacognition and study strategies related to task selection in particular. The studies also represent a solution to the “methodological and theoretical challenges involved in bringing metacognitive research to the real world, using meaningful learning materials” ( Koriat, 2012 , p. 296).

Future Directions for Research

I agree with ( Yan and Brown, 2017 ) statement that “from a pedagogical perspective, the benefits of self-assessment may come from active engagement in the learning process, rather than by being “veridical” or coinciding with reality, because students' reflection and metacognitive monitoring lead to improved learning” (p. 1,248). Future research should focus less on accuracy/consistency/veridicality, and more on the precise mechanisms of self-assessment ( Butler, 2018 ).

An important aspect of research on self-assessment that is not explicitly represented in Table S1 (Supplementary Material) is practice, or pedagogy: Under what conditions does self-assessment work best, and how are those conditions influenced by context? Fortunately, the studies listed in the table, as well as others (see especially Andrade and Valtcheva, 2009 ; Nielsen, 2014 ; Panadero et al., 2016a ), point toward an answer. But we still have questions about how best to scaffold effective formative self-assessment. One area of inquiry is about the characteristics of the task being assessed, and the standards or criteria used by learners during self-assessment.

Influence of Types of Tasks and Standards or Criteria

Type of task or competency assessed seems to matter (e.g., Dolosic, 2018 , Nguyen and Foster, 2018 ), as do the criteria ( Yilmaz, 2017 ), but we do not yet have a comprehensive understanding of how or why. There is some evidence that it is important that the criteria used to self-assess are concrete, task-specific ( Butler, 2018 ), and graduated. For example, Fastre et al. (2010) revealed an association between self-assessment according to task-specific criteria and task performance: In a quasi-experimental study of 39 novice vocational education students studying stoma care, they compared concrete, task-specific criteria (“performance-based criteria”) such as “Introduces herself to the patient” and “Consults the care file for details concerning the stoma” to vaguer, “competence-based criteria” such as “Shows interest, listens actively, shows empathy to the patient” and “Is discrete with sensitive topics.” The performance-based criteria group outperformed the competence-based group on tests of task performance, presumably because “performance-based criteria make it easier to distinguish levels of performance, enabling a step-by-step process of performance improvement” (p. 530).

This finding echoes the results of a study of self-regulated learning by Kitsantas and Zimmerman (2006) , who argued that “fine-grained standards can have two key benefits: They can enable learners to be more sensitive to small changes in skill and make more appropriate adaptations in learning strategies” (p. 203). In their study, 70 college students were taught how to throw darts at a target. The purpose of the study was to examine the role of graphing of self-recorded outcomes and self-evaluative standards in learning a motor skill. Students who were provided with graduated self-evaluative standards surpassed “those who were provided with absolute standards or no standards (control) in both motor skill and in motivational beliefs (i.e., self-efficacy, attributions, and self-satisfaction)” (p. 201). Kitsantas and Zimmerman hypothesized that setting high absolute standards would limit a learner's sensitivity to small improvements in functioning. This hypothesis was supported by the finding that students who set absolute standards reported significantly less awareness of learning progress (and hit the bull's-eye less often) than students who set graduated standards. “The correlation between the self-evaluation and dart-throwing outcomes measures was extraordinarily high ( r = 0.94)” (p. 210). Classroom-based research on specific, graduated self-assessment criteria would be informative.

Cognitive and Affective Mechanisms of Self-Assessment

There are many additional questions about pedagogy, such as the hoped-for investigation mentioned above of the relationship between accuracy in formative self-assessment, students' subsequent study behaviors, and their learning. There is also a need for research on how to help teachers give students a central role in their learning by creating space for self-assessment (e.g., see Hawe and Parr, 2014 ), and the complex power dynamics involved in doing so ( Tan, 2004 , 2009 ; Taras, 2008 ; Leach, 2012 ). However, there is an even more pressing need for investigations into the internal mechanisms experienced by students engaged in assessing their own learning. Angela Lui and I call this the next black box ( Lui, 2017 ).

Black and Wiliam (1998) used the term black box to emphasize the fact that what happened in most classrooms was largely unknown: all we knew was that some inputs (e.g., teachers, resources, standards, and requirements) were fed into the box, and that certain outputs (e.g., more knowledgeable and competent students, acceptable levels of achievement) would follow. But what, they asked, is happening inside, and what new inputs will produce better outputs? Black and Wiliam's review spawned a great deal of research on formative assessment, some but not all of which suggests a positive relationship with academic achievement ( Bennett, 2011 ; Kingston and Nash, 2011 ). To better understand why and how the use of formative assessment in general and self-assessment in particular is associated with improvements in academic achievement in some instances but not others, we need research that looks into the next black box: the cognitive and affective mechanisms of students who are engaged in assessment processes ( Lui, 2017 ).

The role of internal mechanisms has been discussed in theory but not yet fully tested. Crooks (1988) argued that the impact of assessment is influenced by students' interpretation of the tasks and results, and Butler and Winne (1995) theorized that both cognitive and affective processes play a role in determining how feedback is internalized and used to self-regulate learning. Other theoretical frameworks about the internal processes of receiving and responding to feedback have been developed (e.g., Nicol and Macfarlane-Dick, 2006 ; Draper, 2009 ; Andrade, 2013 ; Lipnevich et al., 2016 ). Yet, Shute (2008) noted in her review of the literature on formative feedback that “despite the plethora of research on the topic, the specific mechanisms relating feedback to learning are still mostly murky, with very few (if any) general conclusions” (p. 156). This area is ripe for research.

Self-assessment is the act of monitoring one's processes and products in order to make adjustments that deepen learning and enhance performance. Although it can be summative, the evidence presented in this review strongly suggests that self-assessment is most beneficial, in terms of both achievement and self-regulated learning, when it is used formatively and supported by training.

What is not yet clear is why and how self-assessment works. Those of you who like to investigate phenomena that are maddeningly difficult to measure will rejoice to hear that the cognitive and affective mechanisms of self-assessment are the next black box. Studies of the ways in which learners think and feel, the interactions between their thoughts and feelings and their context, and the implications for pedagogy will make major contributions to our field.

Author Contributions

The author confirms being the sole contributor of this work and has approved it for publication.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Supplementary Material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feduc.2019.00087/full#supplementary-material

1. ^ I am grateful to my graduate assistants, Joanna Weaver and Taja Young, for conducting the searches.

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Yilmaz, F. N. (2017). Reliability of scores obtained from self-, peer-, and teacher-assessments on teaching materials prepared by teacher candidates. Educ. Sci. 17, 395–409. doi: 10.12738/estp.2017.2.0098

Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Self-efficacy: an essential motive to learn. Contemp. Educ. Psychol. 25, 82–91. doi: 10.1006/ceps.1999.1016

Zimmerman, B. J., and Schunk, D. H. (2011). “Self-regulated learning and performance: an introduction and overview,” in Handbook of Self-Regulation of Learning and Performance , eds B. J. Zimmerman and D. H. Schunk (New York, NY: Routledge), 1–14.

Keywords: self-assessment, self-evaluation, self-grading, formative assessment, classroom assessment, self-regulated learning (SRL)

Citation: Andrade HL (2019) A Critical Review of Research on Student Self-Assessment. Front. Educ. 4:87. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2019.00087

Received: 27 April 2019; Accepted: 02 August 2019; Published: 27 August 2019.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2019 Andrade. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Heidi L. Andrade, handrade@albany.edu

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

How to Write a Self-evaluation Essay

For some students, writing a self-assessment essay is not an easy task. It is overwhelming because you have to evaluate your strengths and weaknesses and then give an objective report on the evaluation. In this guide, we will explain how to write a self-evaluation essay like an expert.

What is a Self-evaluation Essay

A self-evaluation is a review of your performance. The self-evaluation essay encourages you to evaluate your strengths, weaknesses, and achievements in a particular area.

After the assessment, you describe your successes, challenges, and lessons learned. You also define the areas you need to improve.

What is the Purpose of a Self-evaluation Essay

Learning how to write a self-assessment essay serves many purposes in college. First, it encourages you to assess your strengths and weaknesses. This assessment helps you to better understand your strengths, progress, and weaknesses. The assessment also motivates you to address weaknesses and look for opportunities to develop further.

Types of Self-evaluation Essay

There are several types of self-evaluation essays, each with its own focus. A personal reflective essay, for example, focuses on your experiences and thoughts. In contrast, a professional reflective essay focuses on professional experiences.

Other types of self-evaluation essays include:

• Creative reflective essay
• Cultural reflective essay
• Social reflective essay
• Historical reflective essay
• Comparative reflective essay
• Group reflective essay
• Educational reflective essay

What is the Format of a Self-evaluation Essay

A self-assessment essay consists of an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. In the introduction, you state the purpose of the essay and present your thesis. In the main body, you discuss your accomplishments, challenges, strengths, and weaknesses. Your essay ends with a conclusion in which you summarize your self-assessment. This is the simple structure that our essay helpers use for self-evaluation essays.

Writing Process of a Self-evaluation Essay

There is no exact procedure for writing your self-evaluation essay. First, gather information about your achievements, strengths, and weaknesses. Then organize your thoughts into an outline that includes an introduction, body, and conclusion. Revise the outline to correct grammatical and spelling errors.

When you say “ write my paper 4 me” , our experts will use the above tips as a starting point. Our experts have already written thousands of essays for students who buy essay from us.

How to Write a Self-evaluation Essay: How to Format

When formatting a self-evaluation essay, there is no particular style that must be followed. The reason for this is that the essay is based on your thoughts and not on the research of other scholars.

However, if you ask us, “ do my self-evaluation essay ,” our experts recommend formatting the essay according to standard styles when using outside sources:

• AMA (American Medical Association)
• APA (American Psychological Association)
• Harvard / Turabian
• IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers)
• MLA (Modern Language Association)

How to Write a Self-evaluation Essay: Importance of Writing

Learning how to write a self-evaluation essay has many benefits for your academic and personal life. For one, it boosts your self-confidence, a prerequisite for making better decisions and understanding yourself better.

Other benefits of writing a self-evaluation essay include:

• It helps to set goals. Learning how to write a self-evaluation essay will help you recognize your strengths and weaknesses. In turn, you can use this knowledge to create an action plan to achieve your academic goals.
• It gives you the opportunity to showcase your achievements. A self-assessment essay gives you the opportunity to recognize and appreciate your achievements. This recognition can boost your self-confidence.
• It promotes a sense of responsibility. A self-evaluation essay promotes a sense of responsibility in many ways. First, the essay encourages you to evaluate your strengths and weaknesses in order to recognize opportunities for improvement. Second, the essay motivates you to review your progress and determine if you are meeting expectations.
• It facilitates communication with lecturers. A self-assessment essay serves as a conversation starter with your professor. In these conversations, you can discuss your academic performance and areas for improvement.
• It improves problem-solving. Writing a self-evaluation essay simplifies problem-solving in some ways. It helps you to assess yourself and recognize a problem. It also allows you to identify the cause and find a solution.

How to Write a Self-evaluation Essay: Top Writing Tips

Writing a self-evaluation essay that earns the best grade requires the right approach. For one, you need to read and understand your lecturer’s guidelines. This way, you can find out what the professor expects.

Also, take the following tips to heart to write an excellent self-evaluation essay:

• Reflect on your strengths and weaknesses. Before you write, you should think about your strengths, weaknesses, and successes. You will need this information to write your essay.
• Be specific. If you want your self-evaluation essay to stand out, avoid generalizations. Back up your claims with relevant data, statistics, and anecdotes.
• Be objective. If you are writing a self-assessment essay, you might become biased and focus on the successes. But that’s not the purpose of the essay. You should present your strengths and weaknesses in a balanced way.
• Get feedback. Get feedback from your fellow students to gain an additional perspective on your strengths and weaknesses. Use this feedback to refine your self-assessment essay.
• Revise and submit. Before submitting your self-evaluation essay, review your writing for clarity and accuracy. Read through your essay to identify areas that need improvement, paying particular attention to sentence structure.

How to Write a Self-evaluation Essay: Most Common Mistakes Students Make When Writing

Many students focus exclusively on their weaknesses or strengths when writing a self-evaluation essay. If you focus on only one aspect, your instructor will see you as biased. You will receive a poor grade on the essay.

Other common mistakes our self-evaluation essay help online has found over time include:

• Being too critical. While you are free to name your weaknesses in self-assessment essays, some students often make the mistake of being too critical of themselves. This criticism often makes you appear biased.
• Lack of evidence. To back up your claims, be sure to cite evidence in the form of specific examples. Evidence supports your claims and adds depth to your essay.
• Being too vague. When writing a self-assessment essay, students often make the mistake of being too general. To avoid this mistake, provide detailed information to clarify and elaborate on your points.
• Failure to edit. Some students assume that their essay is perfect as soon as they finish it. The truth is that you will make several grammatical, spelling, and punctuation errors.
• Deviation from external factors. In a self-assessment essay, you need to evaluate the personal aspects that affect your performance. Therefore, you should never focus on external factors such as the behavior of others.

How to Choose Topics For Your Self-evaluation Essay

Choosing a topic is one of the easiest tasks.

Start by identifying a specific area of focus that you want to explore in your self-evaluation essay. This area could be your professional or academic progress.

Then reflect on your accomplishments, the areas where you have struggled and the lessons you have learned. This will help you assess whether you have enough information for your essay.

Remember to keep your topic narrow and specific so that you are not overwhelmed with too much information.

Examples of Self-reflective Essay Topics

A good topic for a self-evaluation essay should be specific and relevant. It should make you think about your personal, academic, or professional development.

If you ask us “write me a self-evaluation essay” , you will find examples of topics we have dealt with, among others:

• Evaluate your academic progress and the areas in which you have excelled or made an effort
• Assess your communication skills and identify areas where you can improve
• Evaluate your problem-solving skills and identify how you can improve them
• Assess your teamwork skills and consider how you can improve your ability to work with others
• Assess your learning style and explain how it affects your academic performance

How Long Should a Self-evaluation Essay be?

A self-assessment essay should be around 500 to 1,000 words or two to four pages. Your lecturer will usually specify the number of words for a self-evaluation essay. So read your assignment to find out how long your essay should be.

Learn More on How to Write a Self-evaluation Essay

We know that writing a self-assessment essay can be challenging. You need more time to think about your skills in writing and editing the essay. If you are writing such an essay for the first time, chances are you will get a bad grade.

Ask us, “Is it legitimate to pay someone to write my self-evaluation essay ?” Yes, it is. With our help, you can write a persuasive and well-organized essay highlighting your strengths and accomplishments.

Hire writer for self-evaluation essay and let us help you improve your writing skills.

FAQs About Self-evaluation essay writing service

Here you will find quick answers to frequently asked questions about writing self-evaluation essays.

What should I write in the introduction of my self-evaluation essay?

The introduction begins with a strong hook to grab the reader’s attention. It then includes background information about your professional or academic accomplishments. It ends with a clear thesis statement that outlines the main points of your self-evaluation essay.

How do I evaluate my strengths and weaknesses?

Start by reflecting on your experiences and accomplishments. Also, get feedback from people who can provide objective insight into your performance. You can also use a writing helper to save you the trouble.

How can I back up my self-assessment essay with concrete examples?

Use data and metrics to support your self-assessment. Examples include performance evaluations, project results or personal development metrics.

Full Guide: How to Write a Response essay

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How to Write a Self-Evaluation

You’ve been asked to write a self-evaluation. That means not only do you have to reflect on the past year and demonstrate your value to the company you work for, but you also have to do it with a dash of humility and eagerness to grow.

No pressure, right?

Let’s break down all the necessary steps, simplify things, and take the dread out of writing a self-evaluation. You’ve got this!

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Before You Begin Writing Your Self-Evaluation

A lot of the work that goes into writing your own review is prep work. If you were aware that a self-evaluation was on the horizon, you may have been proactive and kept notes about your accomplishments and struggles over the course of the year. In that case, congratulations! You’re halfway there.

But if the review process was a surprise or you didn’t prep, don’t fret. There’s plenty you can do to pull together a strong self-evaluation.

1 Know how the self-evaluation is going to be used

It’s helpful to know why your boss has asked for a self-review. Will it be used when he or she writes your performance review? Will it be brought into play when you’re considered for raises or bonuses? How in-depth should the evaluation be? Should it include any analytics? This information will give you a solid starting point and ultimately affect how you write the review.

2 Write out a list of your accomplishments

It’s time to think about what you’ve achieved over the past year. Brainstorm and create a master list of the things you’ve done. For now, include everything you can think of. As you sit down to write your review, you can whittle that list down to the essentials—the things you’re most proud of and especially those that brought the most value to the company.

3 Gather analytics if you can

Make your value quantifiable whenever possible. “I increased my customer retention” isn’t nearly as compelling as “I increased my customer retention by 21 percent.” The extra time you take to do some analysis before you write your review will pay off by solidifying the value of your accomplishments. Data talks!

4 Write out a list of your struggles

Your self-appraisal shouldn’t consist solely of you tooting your own horn. It’s important to show that you recognize your on-the-job challenges. Again, be comprehensive. You can trim the list down to the major issues when you begin to write.

Writing Your Self-Review

Now that you’re organized, you’re ready to begin writing. Here are a few guidelines to keeping your review positive and aimed at showcasing your contributions while also helping with your professional development.

5 Narrow your accomplishments list down

Sure, you’ve done a lot over the course of the year, but your review should be about the highlights. Include any achievements that you have data to support. Also include the things you’re most proud of. Show off your best work.

6 Don’t forget to align your review with your manager’s or team’s goals

What goals was your manager or team striving to reach over the past year? How did your efforts contribute to reaching those goals? It’s important to include this information in your self-review so your manager can clearly see how you’ve contributed.

7 Stay positive when describing your challenges

It’s important that you use positive language to describe the things you’ve struggled with on the job. Your goal is not to call attention to your failures but to show your willingness to grow. Whenever possible, offer up your own solution to the problem. For example:

I failed to reach several deadlines.

“Failed” is a negative word. You don’t want your boss to equate your name with failure. Instead, use positive language, and don’t forget to show what you’ve done to address the problem:

Several missed deadlines helped me identify my time management challenges. I’ve started creating daily task lists to help me stay on track.

Here’s a tip: Before you turn in your self-review, run it through IBM Watson’s Tone Analyzer . High scores in social tendencies like agreeableness and conscientiousness are excellent. Watch for red flag emotions like anger or fear. A tentative language style will sound wishy-washy, but excessive confidence might come across as arrogant. Strive for a balance.

8 Keep the focus on you

If you didn’t quite reach your objectives, don’t point fingers—this is your review, not your team’s. Your self-evaluation is no place to play the blame game. If you have a problem with a coworker and you believe that problem has affected your performance, that’s something you need to bring to your manager’s attention separately, and ideally long before your review.

9 Don’t forget to ask for growth opportunities

Your self-review is a great place to make your case for professional development opportunities. Remember, in order to get what you want you’ve got to be willing to ask for it. So, even if your boss didn’t specifically request it, go ahead and make your pitch to get that certification, attend that training session, or register for that conference. Your boss will likely appreciate your enthusiasm and desire to amp up your skill set.

10 Remember our self-evaluation do’s and don’ts

• Do incorporate feedback you’ve received from others. It’s okay to include testimonials or meaningful quotes if you’ve got them. Show that others appreciate your contributions.
• Don’t just make a list. A bullet-pointed list of your accomplishments doesn’t show much effort on your part. Write your review out. Thoughtfully.
• Do prioritize. Remember to focus on the highlights when it comes to achievements, and the major concerns when it comes to challenges. Don’t be tempted to include a laundry list.
• Don’t make typos. Even if writing isn’t a big part of your job, your self-review is no place for typos and grammatical errors. Proofread!
• Do get a second opinion. It’s not a bad idea to have a friend, family member, or trusted colleague read over your self-evaluation before you turn it in. They can help you not only check for errors but also make sure your tone is positive and constructive.

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Your complete guide to self-assessments (with examples)

Bettering yourself — and your organization — starts with a look inward.

Especially in today’s labor market, employers are looking for ways to optimize employee performance. Some companies have pressed pause on hiring while others have forfeited to layoffs .

No matter where your organization falls on the hiring spectrum, employers everywhere can agree: it’s time to make sure employees are tapping into their full potential. The success of your organization depends on it.  

At some point in everyone’s career, they'll likely have to participate in a performance evaluation.

In this post, we’ll talk about the benefits of self-assessments for both employers and employees. We’ll also give you some self-assessment examples to start using today. Plus, you’ll learn some best practices to help conduct effective and impactful self-assessments at your organization.

What is a self-assessment?

Typically, a performance evaluation, otherwise known as a self-assessment or performance review , begins with a series of notes from your employer or employers on how you have conducted yourself at work. They typically end with a self-assessment, where you share how much progress you believe you have made during a certain amount of time on the job.

8 benefits of self-evaluations for managers and employees

There are a number of reasons why self-assessments are a useful tool for both managers and employees. 

On its face, self-assessments can seem like a performance management tool to keep employees on track. But it isn’t just a tool to keep employees on track to meet organizational goals. It helps employees grow, develop, and ultimately reach their full potential. 

Here are some of the benefits self-evaluations offer employees and employers:

For managers 

For managers or employers, self-assessments can be a useful tool that comes with a range of benefits. Here are four benefits of self-evaluations for managers. 

• Improved performance. But research tells us that self-assessments have a positive impact on personal and professional growth. In fact, one study found that implementing self-assessments drastically improved performance and self-directed learning skills. 
• Increased employee engagement. Managers have an incredible influence over the employee experience. A Gallup study found that managers can account for up to 70% of the variance in employee engagement . A self-assessment can be the entry point to open, clear, and transparent communication between manager and employee. When employees know what’s expected of them and what they need to work on, it can increase employee engagement .  
• Improved decision-making skills . Managers, you have to deeply know your employees’ strengths and areas of opportunity. When you’re managing a team, it’s critical to know when (and where) certain employees need to jump into a priority. Especially in a fast-changing world of work , the decisions that managers are making are increasing. But with help from a self-assessment by your employees, you have a window into where your employees can flex their skills. For example, let’s say a new data analysis project pops up. You need someone on your team to step up and lead the project. You also need another person to help crunch the numbers — and put together a narrative that the data tells. Because of your employees’ self-assessments, you can quickly identify and make decisions on who should lead what. 
• Better goal-setting. Self-assessments also help managers get a better understanding of what an employee's goals are at work. Having a good grasp on what employees want from their work and what they feel are their strengths and weaknesses can help managers lead better. A self-assessment is a handy tool for managers to use in order to highlight workers’ achievements, set future goals , check in on employee weaknesses, and assess how they can help employees improve those skills. 

For employees 

Just as managers benefit from self-assessments, so do employees. We’ve outlined four ways self-assessments help benefit the employee. 

• Increased self-awareness. A self-assessment can act as a mirror or reflection point. At BetterUp, we use a Whole Person Model to help our Members accurately gain self-awareness and self-reflect. According to our Whole Person Model, we see a 172% increase in self-awareness for those who start out low as a result of coaching. But what does coaching have to do with self-assessments? It can help bring awareness to an employee's strengths — and areas of opportunity. 
• Better learning and development goals. A self-assessment can help pinpoint different target growth areas. Designed to help prompt your employees to examine their skills, a self-assessment can be the tool you need to help identify a learning goal.
• Improved self-confidence . A self-assessment, though it can sound intimidating, isn’t just for identifying what’s not working. For many employees, it’s also a reassurance of what’s working well, especially when your manager agrees. A self-assessment can help your employees realize strengths they might not have identified before. It can also show growth areas where they might’ve struggled before.
• Opens up opportunities for further professional development. To go hand-in-hand with learning and development, self-assessments can help determine where employees should invest in professional development . For example, let’s say your employee takes a self-assessment and realizes they’re falling short on project management skills. Because of the assessment, you can offer project management workshops to help their professional development.  

38 self-assessment example questions for managers to use

Here are 38 examples of questions that managers can ask their employees during a self-assessment. 

Self-evaluation questions on achievements

• What areas do you think you could improve in?
• What could you have done better at work over the past year?
• What would you say your strengths are?
• How do you think you have contributed the most to the company?
• What has been your favorite project in the last year?
• Do you think you did a good job fulfilling your responsibilities over the last year?

Self-assessment questions on goals 

• What goals did you set for yourself this year? Month? Quarter?
• How many of those goals did you achieve?
• Were you happy with the results of meeting those goals you set for yourself?
• What are your future goals for next year? Quarter? Month? What can I do to help you better meet those goals?

Self-evaluation questions on advancement and professional growth 

• Have you taken part in any professional development programs the company offers?
• Are there any leadership positions you would like to have in the future?
• Is there any specific training that you feel you could use to help be more prepared to pursue a leadership role?
• Are there any skills that you could develop outside of work that would help with your work performance?
• Do you feel that there are any particular skills or talents of yours that you are not using?

Self-assessment questions on creativity 

• Do you feel that you think “outside the box” when it comes to finding solutions to work-related problems?
• What are some examples of when you thought “ outside of the box ” in order to solve a work problem? What could your manager do to make it easier for you to use creative problem-solving skills ?
• Do you feel that your position allows you to use your creative problem-solving skills to the fullest?

Self-evaluation questions on communication skills 

• Do you think that you communicate effectively with your manager and colleagues?
• What do you think makes a good communicator?
• How do you start difficult conversations with co-workers or managers? 
• How often do you ask for help on an assignment? Or ask questions to help clarify something about a project?

Self-assessment questions on time management

• Do you think that you use your time wisely while at work?
• When was a time when you thought you managed your time well?
• How could you improve your time management skills in the future?
• Can you describe an example of when you could have used your time better?

Self-evaluation questions on values and behaviors

• Do you think that you have worked in a way that aligns with our core values?
• What could you do to improve how you embody some of the company’s core values ?
• What do you value most about your work?
• When do you feel the most valued by the company?
• What are the qualities you have that make a valuable employee?
• List five things you do that positively impact your productivity .

Self-assessment questions on weaknesses

• Can you identify any weaknesses that you might have that could be hampering your productivity?
• Do you feel comfortable asking for help if you run into a problem with work?
• How could you work toward improving your work-related opportunities?
• Is there anything that leadership could do in order to help you address these opportunities?

Self-assessment example responses for employees

While coming up with questions for a performance review can be tough for managers. Crafting responses to a self-assessment that portrays an employee in their best light is even tougher.

Looking at a few examples of self-assessment questions and responses can be helpful when preparing for your own review. If you are particularly nervous about your self-assessment, practice by writing out some responses to the listed example questions. Use the example response as a jumping-off point for your own practice responses. 

Here are some example responses to the self-evaluation questions listed above.

Self-evaluation responses on achievements

• “I try to lead by example and feel that I put in my best effort every day. I am always the first person to arrive at work and always the last to leave.”
• “I have extremely high standards for my work and have gone above and beyond my job description. I routinely set goals for myself and work late nights and over the weekend to complete assignments.” 
• “Earlier this year, I decided I wanted to improve my public speaking skills and volunteered to give a company-wide presentation on a recently completed project. I’m proud of myself for taking that fear head-on, and the presentation was well received.” 

Self-assessment responses on goals

• “I would like to be able to keep working on my leadership skills. In order to do this, I plan to double down on my commitment to keep pitching project ideas at meetings and taking the lead on group work. I am proud to say that I have grown as a leader over the past year and would love to continue to do so.” 
• “One of the goals I set for myself this year was to become more organized. I have struggled a bit to learn how to better manage my time or delegate tasks but I am actively trying to learn from my mistakes .”

Self-evaluation responses on advancement and growth

• “When I applied for my current position, I did so with the long-term goal of eventually obtaining a managerial role. I can see myself overseeing a team at the company given my interests, ability to delegate tasks, organization, and expert time management skills. I also really enjoy pushing my colleagues to do their best and explore new ways of tackling a project.” 
• “ Now that I have worked at the company for a year, I have learned enough that I feel confident taking the creative lead on a project in the near future.”

Self-assessment responses about creativity

• “Since starting with the company, I have often used creative problem-solving skills on assignments or used lateral thinking to find solutions to work-related problems.”
• “I have been commended several times over the past quarter for my original ideas during pitch sessions, ability to think outside of the box, and come up with creative solutions to problems.”
• “During my team’s weekly meeting, I am typically the first person to jump in with an idea for our next project.” 
• “I often try to help my colleagues figure out solutions to problems when they are stuck.” 

Self-evaluation responses about communication skills

• “I routinely ask questions to clarify expectations for assignments.”
• “I am often the first one to speak up with a question or concern in a meeting.”
• “I always speak respectfully when having hard conversations with managers and co-workers.”
• “I know how to respectfully receive feedback on my performance from managers and co-workers.”
• “I frequently talk to fellow team members about things that are going well or not so well on a project.”
• “If I can not meet a deadline, I always give notice to my manager as early as possible with an explanation as to why I am behind.” 

Self-assessment responses about time management skills

• “In the past year, I have made all of my deadlines and frequently submit my work ahead of time.”
• “My ability to be organized has saved co-workers hours of time on collaborations.”
• “My co-workers will sometimes come to me for advice on how to improve their time management skills. I am always happy to give recommendations to co-workers in the hopes of making our company run more efficiently.” 

Self-evaluation responses about values and behaviors 

• “I believe that the best relationships between employees and employers are built on transparency.”
• “ I value kindness in the workplace and make sure to be as welcoming and helpful to everyone I interact with.”
• “I believe that every obstacle can be overcome with open and respectful communication.”
• “I value my co-workers and strive to be as thoughtful about their well-being as I am my own.”
• “I believe that a positive attitude is the best tool in the workplace and always look at setbacks as opportunities.” 

Self-assessment responses on weaknesses

• “I am a high achiever and often struggle with telling a manager no to an extra work assignment even if I have a lot on my plate already. Unfortunately, this can impact my productivity as completing multiple tasks in a timely fashion can be a tough balancing act. As a result, I will sometimes miss a deadline or ask for a deadline to be changed. I have been learning how to let my manager know if I have too many tasks to take on a new assignment. I’m happy to say I have made some progress and will continue to work on improving.” 
• “I sometimes find it hard to ask for help completing a task when doing so could help me finish an assignment more efficiently. Because of this, I can inadvertently waste time on an assignment that could have been completed quickly with the help of a manager or co-worker. I am trying to be better at anticipating when I will need help for a project and asking for it early.” 

Best practices when writing your self-assessment 

1. be honest.

When writing a review of your work performance, be honest with yourself. Everyone has strengths and weaknesses, and a self-assessment is meant to highlight those on-the-job strengths. They also allow employees to come up with solutions on how to improve in their weaker areas. Make sure to be honest in mentioning times that you fell short at work from something small like turning up a few minutes late to a meeting to something more consequential like missing an important deadline. 

2. Be confident

You should be proud of the work you do and there is nothing wrong with expressing that pride in a self-assessment. While being honest about work mistakes is crucial in a self-assessment, you should also mention the times that you went the extra mile or really shined. 

3. Be committed to improving 

A self-assessment is all about figuring out what you need to do to become better at your work, and there is always room for self-improvement . Make sure to express in your self-assessment how you want to keep growing. Expressing an interest in discovering new ways to improve on good work habits and strengths, as well as shortcomings, will make you appear to be an employee that will grow with the company. 

4. Be professional 

You should never make things personal in a self-assessment. That means no insulting your manager or boss for poor leadership skills or blaming a colleague for a less than stellar result on a collaborative project.  It also means taking responsibility for your own shortcomings in the workplace. Being professional also means taking the performance review and the self-assessment seriously. Make sure to take the time to write a worthwhile review that isn’t rushed or forced and is instead filled with insights and solutions. 

5. Take your time 

A self-assessment that is rushed won’t help anyone. Make time for self-reflection beforehand, and take your time when sitting down to write your self-assessment and put some thought into it. This is one of the few chances that you will have in the workplace to advocate for yourself and remind your employer why you are great at your job. This is also a great opportunity to let management know that you are struggling with something and to see if there are any professional development programs that your company offers to help you address these weaknesses.

6. Be specific 

During your self-assessment, use specific examples as much as possible. For example, if you are taking the time to write about how you consistently do the bulk of the work needed to complete group projects, make sure to list three or four examples. Don’t be afraid to say that you were the one that stayed up all night to make sure that a deadline was met. Or that you were the one that pushed your colleagues to make the project better. 

Something that can help you do this more easily is to track your accomplishments throughout the year. Keep a journal or a small notebook at your desk or on your person where you can jot down notes about the things you think you have done well every day or every week. Having a weekly or monthly list of your accomplishments will make it much easier to remind a manager or employer how valuable you are to the company. 

7. Use numbers 

Data can help convince an employer that your work has been beneficial to the company. When writing a self-assessment, back up claims about your achievements with numbers. If you write in your self-assessment that you are great at figuring out ways to shorten the amount of time your team spends on projects, make sure to reference how much time you have been able to cut. Including concrete numbers in your self-assessment will allow your manager or employer to develop a metric to measure your achievements.  

How to prepare for an employee self-assessment

Preparing ahead of time for giving or writing a self-assessment is central to having a constructive performance review. Managers should know what goals they would like employees to have completed and review themselves with some areas of weakness that employees can improve before talking about a self-assessment. 

If you are having trouble figuring out how to craft a self-assessment to give to employees there are a number of free self-evaluation templates online, like this one .

By using a template, you can streamline the self-assessment process and make less work for yourself in the future if you need to modify any questions on the evaluation. When sitting down to have a person-to-person discussion about employee performance, remember to give constructive feedback .

Tap into the potential of your workforce 

As a result, it’s important to make sure you’re maximizing the potential of your workforce. Self-assessments are the starting point to figuring out what potential lies within your employees (and your organization). 

Whether you’re looking at your own performance or your employees’ performance, BetterUp can help. An employee self-evaluation can be the ticket to building better teamwork , job performance, and work ethic. 

Get started with virtual coaching to help provide personalized support for your employees. The result? A mentally fit workforce that's better prepared for what the future holds.

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Madeline Miles

Madeline is a writer, communicator, and storyteller who is passionate about using words to help drive positive change. She holds a bachelor's in English Creative Writing and Communication Studies and lives in Denver, Colorado. In her spare time, she's usually somewhere outside (preferably in the mountains) — and enjoys poetry and fiction.

What is a DiSC assessment and how can it help your team?

Teamwork skills self-appraisal comments: 40 example phrases, 24 employee engagement survey questions (and how to use them), how self-efficacy can boost your personal success, use a personal swot analysis to discover your strengths and weaknesses, own your personal development: self-improvement goals that motivate, learn how to be your own best ally for reaching your goals, are you reaching your full potential a guide to personal development, empower yourself: how to nurture personal self-determination, 360-degree feedback: definition, benefits, and examples, 3 problem statement examples and steps to write your own, your guide to individual development plans (with examples), 53 performance review examples to boost growth, the ultimate guide to hiring for behavioral competency (with examples), 18 questions to ask in a performance self-evaluation, 25 performance review questions (and how to use them), stay connected with betterup, get our newsletter, event invites, plus product insights and research..

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Home — Essay Samples — Life — Career — Self Evaluation Essay Example

Self Evaluation Essay Example

• Categories: Career

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Words: 948 |

Updated: 11 October, 2024

Words: 948 | Pages: 2 | 5 min read

Table of contents

Self-evaluation in education.

• Identify strengths and weaknesses.
• Set achievable goals.
• Track their progress over time.

Self-Evaluation in Career Development

• Recognize their strengths and weaknesses in the workplace.
• Set clear career goals.
• Develop actionable plans for skill development and improvement.

Self-Evaluation in Personal Relationships

• Evaluate their communication style and emotional intelligence.
• Improve conflict resolution skills.
• Increase empathy and mutual understanding in relationships.

Conclusion: The Value of Self-Evaluation

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Self-Evaluation Essay Examples

A self-evaluation essay aims to describe one’s accomplishments and mistakes over a given period or throughout a lifetime. It also suggests how it is possible to enhance the merits and resolve the errors.

This writing task is highly beneficial for future managers, nurses, and other students planning to work with people. We are too prone to exaggerate our merits and underestimate our failures. This essay teaches you to take a critical look at how you treat others.

Here you can consult dozens of self-evaluation essay examples featuring every possible approach to the assignment. Your own text will undoubtedly be different in structure and conclusions, but the general tone of the samples will help you do it correctly.

33 Best Self-Evaluation Essay Examples

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What It Means to Be a Philosopher

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Characteristics of a Fair-Minded Thinker

Business informatics: skills and attributes.

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Cognitive Dissonance and Its Impact in My Life

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From Birth to Death: Human’s Destiny

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Religion Implicit Association Test Evaluation

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Gender Identity: Definitions, Factors, Comparison

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The Character Who Influenced Me: Abraham Lincoln

The application of interpersonal communication skills.

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Essay Papers Writing Online

Strategies for crafting a comprehensive self-evaluation essay that highlights your strengths and areas for growth.

Self-evaluation essays are a great way to reflect on your progress, achievements, and areas for improvement. Whether you are writing an essay for school, work, or personal development, it’s important to be honest and thoughtful in your self-assessment. Here are some tips to help you write a compelling self-evaluation essay.

First , start by reflecting on your goals and objectives. What were you trying to accomplish during the time period you are evaluating? Consider both short-term and long-term goals, and assess how well you have met them. Be specific and provide examples to support your evaluation.

Secondly , consider your strengths and weaknesses. What are your key strengths and how have they contributed to your success? On the other hand, what are your areas for improvement and how can you work on them? It’s important to be objective and open to feedback in this part of the essay.

Tips for Crafting a Self Evaluation Essay

When writing a self evaluation essay, it’s important to be honest and reflective. Here are some tips to help you craft a compelling self evaluation essay:

• Reflect on your achievements and challenges: Take the time to reflect on your accomplishments and the areas where you faced challenges. Be honest with yourself about your strengths and weaknesses.
• Provide concrete examples: Support your self evaluation with specific examples that showcase your skills and abilities. This will help the reader understand your strengths and areas for growth.
• Set goals for improvement: Based on your self assessment, set realistic goals for improvement. This will show that you are committed to personal and professional growth.
• Solicit feedback: Consider asking for feedback from mentors, colleagues, or supervisors to gain a different perspective on your performance. This can help you identify blind spots and areas for improvement.
• Stay focused and organized: When writing your self evaluation, stay focused on the main points you want to convey. Organize your thoughts in a clear and logical manner to make it easier for the reader to follow your argument.
• Edit and revise: Take the time to edit and revise your self evaluation essay to ensure clarity and coherence. Proofread carefully to catch any errors in grammar, punctuation, or spelling.

Understand the Assignment Requirements

Before you start writing your self evaluation essay, it’s crucial to thoroughly read and understand the assignment requirements. Pay close attention to the guidelines provided by your instructor or the prompt given to you. Make sure you understand what specific aspects of your performance or experience you need to address in your essay.

Tip: If you have any questions about the assignment requirements, don’t hesitate to seek clarification from your instructor or discuss it with your classmates. Understanding what is expected of you will help you focus your writing and ensure that you meet the criteria set for the assignment.

Reflect on Your Achievements

When writing a self evaluation essay, it’s important to take a moment to reflect on your achievements. Consider the goals you set for yourself at the beginning of the evaluation period and assess how well you have met or exceeded them. Think about your accomplishments, both big and small, and how they have contributed to your personal and professional growth.

Highlight specific examples of projects you completed successfully, skills you developed, or challenges you overcame. Discuss any positive feedback you received from supervisors or colleagues, as well as any recognition or awards you may have garnered. Reflecting on your achievements allows you to showcase your strengths and demonstrate the value you bring to your work.

Identify Areas for Improvement

When writing a self evaluation essay, it’s essential to honestly identify areas where you can improve. This is a crucial step in personal growth and development. Reflect on your strengths and weaknesses to pinpoint specific areas that you would like to work on.

• Skills: Are there any skills that you would like to develop further? Whether it’s communication, critical thinking, or technical skills, identifying areas for improvement can help you set goals for growth.
• Performance: Reflect on your performance in different aspects of your life, such as work, school, or personal relationships. Are there any areas where you feel you could have done better?
• Attitude: Your attitude plays a significant role in how you approach challenges and interact with others. Consider if there are any negative attitudes or habits that you would like to change.

By identifying areas for improvement, you can create a roadmap for personal development and set actionable goals to help you progress. Remember, self-improvement is a continuous journey, and identifying areas for improvement is the first step towards becoming the best version of yourself.

Provide Concrete Examples

One of the most important aspects of writing a self evaluation essay is to provide concrete examples to support your statements. Instead of making vague claims about your strengths and weaknesses, use specific instances where you demonstrated certain skills or faced challenges. For example, instead of saying “I am a good team player,” provide an example of a project where you collaborated effectively with your team members to achieve a common goal.

Using concrete examples not only makes your self evaluation more credible, but also helps the reader understand your strengths and areas for improvement better. Make sure to include relevant details and outcomes of each example to paint a clear picture of your capabilities.

Show Your Growth Over Time

One key aspect of writing a self evaluation essay is to show your growth over time. Reflect on how you have evolved personally, academically, and professionally since the beginning of the evaluation period. Highlight the challenges you faced and the steps you took to overcome them. Discuss the lessons you learned and how they have contributed to your growth and development.

Use specific examples and anecdotes to illustrate your progress. Include both successes and setbacks to provide a complete picture of your journey. Be honest and transparent about your strengths and weaknesses, and demonstrate how you have worked to improve in areas that needed development. Showing your growth over time will showcase your self-awareness and commitment to continuous improvement.

Seek Feedback from Others

One of the most valuable sources of information for your self-evaluation essay is feedback from others. This can include peers, colleagues, supervisors, and mentors. Ask them to provide honest and constructive feedback on your strengths, weaknesses, and areas for improvement.

Receiving feedback from others can give you a different perspective on your performance and help you identify blind spots that you may not have noticed. It can also help you understand how others perceive your work and interactions, which can be valuable in shaping your self-assessment.

When seeking feedback, be open and receptive to criticism. Remember that the goal is to learn and grow, so take feedback as an opportunity for improvement rather than as a personal attack. Consider incorporating the feedback you receive into your self-evaluation essay to present a well-rounded and reflective assessment of yourself.

Edit and Revise Your Essay

Once you have written your self evaluation essay, it is crucial to edit and revise it before submitting. Editing and revising help to ensure that your essay is clear, coherent, and error-free. Here are some tips for editing and revising your essay:

1. Review for Clarity: Read through your essay to see if your ideas are communicated clearly and effectively. Make sure each paragraph flows logically into the next and that your points are well-supported.

2. Check for Grammar and Spelling Errors: Proofread your essay for any grammar or spelling mistakes. Use spell check tools and consider asking someone else to review your essay for errors.

3. Ensure Consistent Tone and Voice: Make sure that the tone and voice of your essay are consistent throughout. Avoid sudden shifts in tone that may confuse the reader.

4. Cut Unnecessary Information: Remove any information that is not relevant to your self evaluation or does not add value to your essay. Keep your writing concise and focused.

5. Seek Feedback: Ask a friend, family member, or teacher to read your essay and provide feedback. Fresh eyes can catch mistakes or inconsistencies that you may have missed.

By taking the time to edit and revise your self evaluation essay, you can ensure that it presents your thoughts and accomplishments in the best possible light.

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Self Evaluation Essay

Self evaluation essay generator.

One of the most important in having to tell that you have been performing right is by the use of a self-evaluation . Not only does it tells about being aware of yourself, but also being open for self-improvement and development. When you are aware of yourself, you begin to know what your strengths and weaknesses are. Self-evaluation can also offer confidence, strong relationships and good decision making. When you are asked to write for a self-evaluation , you are more likely to reflect and demonstrate your value in an organization where you have found an avenue to grow.

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What is Self-Evaluation?

The act of evaluating oneself is to objectively monitor their own performance in a particular job. It is a kind of a written review that involves rating competencies, goals, and overall performance. When you are able to assess yourself, you will become someone who is active in his or her own evaluation. This increases commitment to setting up a goal , development and planning for your career.

Things To Do For Self-Evaluation

Take time . Allot an hour of your time to complete the evaluation. You may spend this time reviewing your past documentations that is related to your goals.

You may consider conducting your self-evaluation in a quiet place where nobody can disturb your focus. Devote your full attention when reflecting.

Try to keep yourself relaxed . The purpose of the evaluation is to highlight your strengths, correct weaknesses, and develop skills.

Self-evaluations are the right place for you to boast about what you have achieved without putting anyone else down. The things that you have accomplished must be stated accurately.

Write in a conversational style so that you won’t be misunderstood especially by your supervisor. Keep it natural.

Ask your co-workers about of some feedback about your performances. Avoid comments in the feedback that could lessen your self-esteem.

Use appropriate language . This means that you have to be decent with your words and choose only those words that are objective.

Writing self-evaluations essays are a good opportunity for you to identify how you are going to improve your performance . Make some recommendations . This is not a weakness. Rather, this is a strength that could help you grow and improve as a person.

Apply the knowledge you have gained . You should be able to complete the learning and apply those that you have learned that could support your performance goals and competency development.

Get your self-evaluation essay right . Write more than one draft. Make sure that you are writing thoroughly and professionally.

Example of Self-Evaluation Essay

“ …On analyzing my performance during the semester, I believe that I was quite successful to a significant extent. In this regard, it is worth mentioning the fact that I have completed seven essays during the semester and almost all of them were quite successful because I received “A” grade for the majority of my essays. I really liked my performance but I am always concerned with receiving “A” grades for my work which is the only acceptable grade for me. I am success-oriented person. This is why I just cannot afford the grade below “A”.

 Such personal position urges me to do my best and to work hard to gain the possibly highest degree but, on the other hand, it is sometimes difficult and even frustrating to pursue the highest degree, especially if it is extremely difficult to receive. For example, there were cases, when I felt the task was quite challenging for me to complete it successfully. This is why I had to work really hard to obtain “A” degree for those papers. Nevertheless, I am aware that such tasks have made the most significant contribution to my progress and academic development because they encouraged not only my creativity but also stimulated the development of research skills which helped me to learn more about the subject I wrote about and to improve my writing and academic performance overall (Frosh 103) …”

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Why do you have to include the list of your achievements.

Your achievements will make you proud and will bring the most value into your company.

Where do some self-evaluations used?

Some self-evaluations are used for self-review, performance review or even when you are considered to receive bonuses or salary increase.

What are some of the do’s and don’ts in self-evaluation?

Do’s – ask feedback from others, focus on your highlights, and get second opinion from someone close to you.

Don’ts – put bullets in writing for your accomplishments and make grammatical or typographical errors.

Writing a self-evaluation doesn’t have to be that stressful. Before you begin, it is important to organize yourself and focus on something positive to impress others. It will also be beneficial to your part because you will be able to provide a reflection over your achievements in which it sets you to the right path in making yourself more improved.

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Speech Evaluation Essay on the techniques used in Martin Luther King Jr.'s "I Have a Dream" speech

Speech Evaluation Essay on the effectiveness of persuasive tactics in a famous political speech

The impact of self-assessment, planning and goal setting, and reflection before and after revision on student self-efficacy and writing performance

• Open access
• Published: 04 July 2021
• Volume 34 , pages 1885–1913, ( 2021 )

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• Huy Q. Chung   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3048-3678 1 ,
• Vicky Chen 1 &
• Carol Booth Olson 1  

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Writing on-demand, text-based analytical essays is a challenging skill to master. Novice writers, such as the sixth grade US students in this study, may lack background knowledge of how to compose an effective essay, the self-efficacy skills, and the goal setting skills that will help with completing this task in accomplished ways. This sequential mixed-method study explored the impact of guiding a predominantly Redesignated English Learner group of students in a large, urban, low-SES school district in a timed, on-demand essay into a multiple draft process paper through a self-assessment, planning and goal setting, and reflection process as they revised this process paper over a three week period. Both treatment and comparison students completed a pre-test on demand writing assessment, a pre and post self-efficacy in writing survey, and a post-test on demand writing assessment. Students in both conditions were participating in a year-long writing intervention called The Pathway to Academic Success, developed and implemented by the UC Irvine site of the National Writing Project (UCI Writing Project), during the 2017–2018 school year and received identical training from their teachers on how to revise a pre-test essay. However, only the treatment group engaged in self-assessment, planning and goal setting, and reflection during this revision process. Students in the treatment condition demonstrated improved self-efficacy in the writing sub-domain of revision ( p  < .05) and had statistically significant greater gains on the post-test writing assessment (r = .57; p  < .001). These results suggest that engaging students in a planned revision process that includes student reflection, planning, and goal setting before revision, and reflection and self-assessment after revision, positively impacts self-efficacy and writing outcomes.

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Introduction

A person’s self-efficacy, or beliefs about his or her ability to succeed in a specific domain (Bandura, 1997 , 2006 ), plays an important role in both how well a person performs and how long he or she persists at a particular task, especially when the task is complex. Few academic tasks may be as difficult as those required of students in secondary school to demonstrate mastery of the text based analytical writing called for by the Common Core State Standards (Barzilai et al., 2018 ; Biancarosa & Snow, 2004 ; Graham & Perin, 2007 ; National Governors Association, 2010 ; Olson et al., 2012 ). Greater mastery of this skill has been highly correlated with postsecondary success and career readiness (Perin et al., 2017 ). From grade 6 through 12, students are expected to demonstrate increasing complexity as they “write arguments to support claims with clear reasons and relevant evidence” (NGA, 2010 , p. 42). Sub-skills to master this standard include conducting extensive research, discerning fact from opinion, writing a defensible and nuanced claim, organizing essays logically, and revising their papers for clarity.

Recent results from the National Assessment of Educational Progress for Writing (NCES, 2012) highlight the need to help students become proficient writers, especially in the area of analytical writing and revision which students often find especially challenging (Olson et al., 2012 ). Only about 27% of the nation’s students—and only 1% of English Learners (ELs)—scored proficient or advanced in writing (NCES, 2012 ). This is cause for concern, because being able to write well is an important skill for success in both higher education and the workplace across a variety of disciplines and industries (National Commission on Writing for America’s Families, Schools, and Colleges, 2004 ). Additionally, the achievement gap between our English learners and their English only peers is an issue of equity and access.

ELs represent the fastest growing segment of the K-12 population with the largest increases occurring in grade 7–12 (U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Educational Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics, 2017 ). In 2013–14, over 9% of K-12 public school students were ELs. California leads the nation with almost 23% ELs (U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Educational Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics, 2016 ). Although ELs in the United States speak more than 350 languages, 73% speak Spanish as their first language (Batalova & McHugh, 2010 ), 40% have origins in Mexico (Hernandez, Denton, & Macartney, 2008 ), and 60% of ELs in grades 6 through 12 come from low-income families (Batalova et al., 2005 ; Capps et al., 2005 ). The largest numbers of ELs in our schools today are referred to as long-term ELs (LTELs) (Menken & Kleyn, 2009 ). According to Olsen ( 2010 ), these are students who have been educated in the United States since age six, are doing poorly in school, and have major gaps in knowledge because their schooling was disrupted. In Olsen’s study of 175,734 ELs, the majority (59%) were LTELs who were failing to acquire academic language and struggling to do well in high school. They may come from homes where the primary language is not English, but they themselves may speak English only or they may switch between multiple languages and still have features in their writing attesting to their multilingual status (Valdés, 2001 ). Limited in their knowledge of academic registers in any language, these students are often mainstreamed into regular English language arts classrooms, though they may be disadvantaged in not only writing skills, but also in soft skills.

One possible contributor to flat-lined scores between administrations of the NAEP-Writing, is the lack of self-efficacy or motivation to perform well on standardized tests for all secondary writers, but particularly for English learners. Kiuhara et al. ( 2009 ) found that students are constrained by more complex essay writing tasks and timed on-demand tasks due to textual, affective, and genre constraints. Students often are either given very brief instructions/prompts, may be unfamiliar with or under-practiced in the genre being assessed, or are overwhelmed by the information given to them in these settings (Blake et al., 2016 ). The fact that students may not know how to approach the writing task or even understand what is expected of them in these situations is a problem that must be addressed. Because text-based analytical writing is a gatekeeper for college access and persistence and a “threshold skill” for hiring and promotion for salaried workers (National Commission on Writing for America’s Families, Schools, and Colleges, 2004 ), failure to close these achievement gaps in academic writing will have serious social and economic consequences. Again, in these circumstances, a student’s self-efficacy plays a large role in completing these tasks.

Self-efficacy is particularly important in completing complex writing tasks. In a study exploring self-efficacy in writing, Pajares and colleagues ( 2007 ) found that how students interpret the results of their own past writing performance, such as how successful they believe they were at completing a writing task, can make a key contribution to their sense of self-efficacy. In fact, Graham and colleagues ( 2018 ) found that students’ beliefs (i.e., sense of self-efficacy) contributed to 10% of the variance in predicting students’ writing outcomes and the percentage is even higher (16.3%) for students with disabilities. On-demand writing, ubiquitous in educational settings, compounds the impact of self-efficacy in writing as students have the added pressure to perform cognitively demanding tasks in a short amount of time that may not mirror the more thoughtful stage process that they are given during regular instruction to take a paper through the writing process, which includes pre-writing, drafting, revising, and editing phases. When students are often asked to revise papers before they submit them for evaluation they are asked to improve their drafts through careful reading and writing that globally impacts their message or purpose for writing the paper. However, few students give themselves enough time to revise their writing during the more intense situations of timed writing assessments. Moreover, even when they do have time to revise their efforts may actually have the opposite effect. Changes they make are constrained by the time they have to reflect on the impact the revision has on the rest of the paper and make more local changes that may or may not help with the overall assessment of the quality of the paper (Worden, 2009 ).

The current study, a sequential mixed methods design study, on testing the impact of self-efficacy in essay writing is an extension of a large-scale intervention called The Pathway to Academic Success, developed and implemented by the UCI Writing Project, that aims to close the achievement gap for English learners in mainstreamed ELA classrooms and their native English speaking peers, particularly in the area of text-based analytical writing by demystifying the process that expert readers and writers use to approach domain-specific tasks, targeting teacher professional development, and fostering students’ habits of mind. By focusing on students’ self-efficacy in writing (SEW) in classroom settings, this work can positively impact teachers’ practices and influence students’ motivation and ability to write analytically. To this end, we focus on answering the following three research questions:

Do students with higher self-efficacy have better writing outcomes?

What is the impact of students’ self-assessment, planning and goal setting, and reflection on their self-efficacy in writing as they revise a text-based analytical essay?

What do students cite as most helpful in revising their writing and how does this contribute to their self-efficacy?

Literature review

The following section reviews the research literature that informs our study. First, we review the concept of self-efficacy in writing to address the first research question. Then, we review the literature on students’ self-assessment, planning and goal setting, and reflection in relation to revision of writing in order to study the second research question. Finally, we discuss factors that are known to impact students’ successful revision of writing such as teacher instruction, motivation, prior knowledge, and conditions of the writing task to explore the third question.

Self-efficacy in writing

As mentioned previously, a person’s self-efficacy, or beliefs about his or her ability to succeed in a specific domain (Bandura, 1997 , 2006 ), influences how anxious people feel, the goals that they set for themselves, and the strategies that they adopt when working towards those goals. A greater sense of self-efficacy tends to correlate with lower levels of anxiety, the use of more effective learning strategies, greater enjoyment of the task, a greater willingness to seek help when needed, and better overall performance (Bong, 2006 ; Sanders-Reio et al., 2014 ; Williams & Takaku, 2011 ).

Pajares and colleagues ( 2007 ) explored Bandura’s ( 1997 ) four hypothesized sources of self-efficacy beliefs—mastery experiences, social persuasion, vicarious experiences, and anxiety—Pajares and colleagues found that, while all four factors were significantly correlated with students’ self-efficacy in writing, perceived mastery experiences were the greatest predictor of writing self-efficacy regardless of gender or grade level. In other words, how students interpret the results of their own past performance, such as how successful they believe they were at completing a similar task, makes a key contribution to their sense of self-efficacy. Although this has led to some interventions that focus on giving praise and encouraging students to evaluate themselves in positive ways as a method of improving self-efficacy, theorists and researchers have increasingly emphasized the importance of concrete skill development and the opportunities that it provides for genuine success experiences (Pajares et al., 2007 ). Such experiences provide powerful support for increasing students’ self-efficacy and equip students with the tools they can use to succeed in future writing tasks.

Self-assessment

Studies which focus on the relationship of students’ self-efficacy on past performance and its impact on future performance have explored a variety of activities and their potential for increasing student self-efficacy in writing. One of the most notable of these is self-assessment, which occurs when people evaluate their own work, identify disparities between their current and desired performance, and reflect upon ways in which they can improve (McMillan & Hearn, 2008 ). Guiding students through this self-reflective process and supporting their development of self-assessment skills gives students a sense of agency and control over their own learning, which, in turn, can heighten student motivation and self-efficacy (Panadero et al., 2016 ). Self-assessment can be conducted and expressed in both spoken (e.g., self-explanation) and/or written form (e.g., reflection); it is conjectured that students who are able to articulate their declarative knowledge around task concepts are better able to convert this knowledge to more tacit, procedural knowledge and skills. Not only does this process influence what students are able to do given a task, but it also influences their experiences and identity work around such tasks, in this case writing (Chi et al., 1989 ). The process of self-assessment also contributes to students’ sense of self-efficacy and conditional knowledge as they engage in reflecting on their own learning, and improvement of their own work. However, it is important to note that student self-assessment is more effective when combined with teacher feedback, especially in domains where students lack expertise (Logan, 2015 ; Panadero et al., 2016 ).

Self-assessment, self-efficacy, and revision

The original Flower-Hayes ( 1981 ) model of the composing process focused on three cognitive processes in writing—planning, translating, and revision–-and discussed them within the context of how an individual writer responds to the task environment, all those factors influencing the writing task, and the writer’s long term memory, including the knowledge of the topic, audience, and stored writing plans. Over fifteen years later, in “A New Framework for Understanding Cognition and Affect in Writing” (Hayes, 1996 ), Hayes reorganized his model to include a social component in the task environment to acknowledge that writing is “a communicative act that requires a social context and a medium” (p. 5). Further, within the individual component of his model, he added motivation/affect under which he lists goals, predispositions, beliefs and attitudes, and cost–benefit analyses because “motivation and affect play central roles in writing processes” (p. 5). He specifically links positive and negative dispositions toward writing to self-assessment and self-efficacy, citing Dweck ( 1986 ) and Palmquist and Young ( 1992 ).

Hayes’ ( 2012 ) new framework also posits an evaluation function responsible for the detection and diagnosis of text problems during revision. He further postulates that to understand revision, it is necessary for writers to draw upon a control structure or task schema that enables them to access a “package of knowledge” that includes: “(i) A goal: to improve the text; (ii) An expected set of activities to perform; (iii) Attentional subgoals; (iv) Templates and criteria for quality; and (v) Strategies for fixing specific text problems” (p. 17). The addition of the control level to Hayes’ composing model indicates that motivation, self-assessment, detection and diagnosis, planning and goal setting, reflection, and writing task schemas all play an important role in students’ self-efficacy as writers. Hayes points out that students who believe writing is a gift rather than a craft one can work at and improve have higher levels of writing anxiety and lower self-assessments of their ability as writers.

In light of Hayes’ new framework, we hypothesize that engaging students in activities that prompt them to detect and diagnose areas for revision, plan and set goals for making both local and, more importantly, global changes (Hayes, 1996 ), and to reflect upon and assess their growth after revising will enhance their self-efficacy as writers and potentially impact their writing outcomes.

Teacher impacts on self-efficacy in writing

Studies have indicated that teachers can play an important role in developing student self-efficacy in writing. Corkett et al. ( 2011 ) found that teachers’ perceptions of students’ self-efficacy in writing are highly correlated with their students’ actual writing performance– indicating that teachers enact different instructional practices based on their perceptions of how prepared their students are for tackling different writing assignments. Their study also found that students’ perceptions of their own abilities are not predictive of their actual abilities, indicating that students still need specific instructional supports to develop their own perceptions of how they can improve their writing.

The nature of how teachers structure a writing task can also impact how certain students develop their self-efficacy in writing. In a study of gifted elementary school children, the treatment group that received formative feedback as they learned and practiced specific writing skills (e.g., topic sentences) and created assigned written products (e.g., a paragraph), better learned these skills and were more proficient at producing certain written products than the comparison group (Schunk & Swartz, 1993 ). However, goal setting and teacher feedback did not improve student self-efficacy with students with learning disabilities (LD) (Sawyer et al., 1992 ). It is conjectured that students with LD tend to overestimate their abilities, as is true for students with general low writing abilities, further necessitating classroom interventions or processes that will help students recognize areas of improvement in their writing and how to improve such skills.

Teachers’ own self-efficacy can also be impacted by teacher professional development (Locke et al., 2013 ) which provides them with more effective and “transformative” ways of teaching writing that can lead to improved student learning and student self-efficacy in writing. However, Locke and colleagues also indicate that teachers’ self-efficacy is moderated by the type of writing their students produce in their classrooms. This feedback loop of student data, teacher interpretation, and reflection on next steps demonstrates the importance of developing both teacher and student self-efficacy in writing.

In sum, studies on teacher self-efficacy and how it interacts with student self-efficacy demonstrate the influence the former has on the latter. Though self-efficacy is often an individual activity, when it comes to writing, input from a teacher influences how well students will approach their own writing tasks. Moreover, teacher self-efficacy beliefs also influence how positive and/or confident teachers themselves feel about teaching writing to students, which again impacts how positive students approach these tasks (Troia & Graham, 2016 ).

Contributing factors to self-efficacy in writing

Beyond teachers, other factors that may impact students’ self-efficacy in writing are their motivation, their prior knowledge around the topic they are writing about, and the conditions under which they are being asked to write. Students who are highly motivated to receive feedback (e.g., help-seeking) on their performance are more likely to do well on writing tasks, indicating that students who are more motivated to improve will produce better writing (Williams & Takaku, 2011 ). Similarly, students are also motivated if they have past success with writing, have been exposed to positive writing habits, have been praised by their peers for their writing, and have associated positive feelings with their writing (Bruning & Kauffman, 2016 ). Students who study for mastery and depth have higher self-efficacy than students who only have surface-level knowledge and have lower self-efficacy because of their motivations and success with past learning experiences (Prat-Sala & Redford, 2010 ). Students also benefit from seeing how other people write and approach writing and self-calibrating to these examples (Schunk & Zimmerman, 2007 ). Moreover, the feedback that they receive around their writing, from both teachers and peers, can impact their self-efficacy. Students tend to internalize the feedback they receive and associate this feedback with whether they are good or bad at writing, along with the emotions that come with these self-assessments (e.g., guilt, confusion, anxiety, or fear) (Smith, 2010 ). Hidi and Boscolo ( 2006 ), for instance, noted that emotions (negative or positive) can serve as a mediating variable between self-efficacy and writing quality. In other words, feeling good while writing is its own reward, and encourages one to see oneself as a good writer and to engage in more writing.

Finally, the context or situation in which students are asked to write can also impact their perceptions of their own self-efficacy. Elementary school students tend to have higher self-efficacy in writing than middle and high school students, and these effects are also stronger for female students across grade levels that report having lower anxiety when it comes to writing tasks (Pajares et al., 2007 ). As expectations increase, the more potential there is for students to feel challenged by these expectations.

Contributions of this study

This study explores the relationship between self-assessment, planning and goal setting, and reflection on self-efficacy in student writing by having students use a revision planner as part of their writing process during a strategy-based reading and writing intervention. The revision planner encourages students to analyze what they did well on a selected piece of writing, with feedback from an experienced reader, quite similar to the mastery experiences Pajares and colleagues ( 2007 ) identified as promoting student self-efficacy in writing. Additionally, beyond identifying the strengths and needs of their writing assignment, students also plan and create achievable goals before revising their essay as well as reflect upon how well they met those goals after revising (McMillan & Hearn, 2008 ). Like a rubric (Andrade et al., 2010 ), a planner can serve as a tool to support students in revising and improving their work. Unlike a rubric, a planner focuses students’ attention on actionable steps that they can take to reach specific goals that they can set for themselves—based upon what they have learned throughout the intervention—to help them manage their revision process and revise their writing successfully. We are particularly interested in the impact that goal setting, supported by the use of a planner, might have on student writing performance, self-assessment, and self-efficacy in writing.

Study context

This sequential mixed methods study took place during the last year of a five-year grant awarded to our institution to validate the effectiveness of a cognitive-strategies approach to writing instruction in partnership with Norwalk La Mirada Unified School District (NLMUSD) and three other school districts in California. The previous four years were spent on designing and conducting a randomized control trial involving the districts’ grade 7 to 12 grade students. During the year we conducted this study (2017–2018), NLMUSD exclusively requested that grade 6 teachers be provided with the same professional development in an effort to institutionalize and scale-up the intervention (Olson et al., 2019). NLMUSD is a large, urban school district that serves 80% Hispanic students, 8% White students, 7% Asian students, 3% African American students, and 2% are Other Ethnicities. Additionally, 61% of their students are English Only students, 17% of their students are English Learners, 16% are Reclassified Fluent English Proficient students, and 6% of their students are Initially English Proficient. About 75% of the district’s students participate in the Federal Reduced Price Lunch program. Participating teachers and students were recruited from NLMUSD specifically as the other three school districts institutionalized the intervention in other ways. Teachers in this grade 6 cohort all received the same intervention as previous cohorts of teachers. However, in addition to testing the efficacy of the teacher intervention with all teachers and students, we were also interested in testing a student intervention, that we hypothesized would have implications on their self-efficacy as writers. The focus of our student intervention, thus, was at a different level and with a different grade level than that of the larger RCT study. We collected quantitative data on students first, then followed by a qualitative component to understand what may have contributed to students’ self-efficacy while revising.

Teacher and student participants

This cohort of participating grade 6 teachers consisted of 13 teachers. Each teacher had one focal class. Approximately 401 students were part of this cohort. All teachers participated in our professional development intervention. The student intervention component differed between randomly assigned groups. Of these students, 131 students were in the treatment group and 83 were in the comparison group, as one teacher declined to participate in the random assignment, representing an 8% attrition rate of teachers (leaving 12 teachers to be randomized). Across both groups, 52% of the students were female, 76% were Hispanic, and 62% of the students are Redesignated English Learners, a percentage that is much higher than the overall district demographics, since focal classes with higher percentages of ELs and RFEPs for all teachers’ classes (treatment and comparison) were selected for the study. The Self-Efficacy in Writing (SEW) means at baseline for both groups were not statistically different (m tx  = 3.61; m c  = 3.56).

Professional development intervention for teachers

In order to distinguish between the grade 7 to 12 study and this sub study of grade 6 teachers, we are providing a description of the professional development program since all teachers in this study were in the same PD and were trained together. We will subsequently explain what the “treatment” teachers in our self-efficacy intervention did that was above and beyond the PD all teachers attended to account for differences in student outcomes. Participating teachers attended 46 h of professional development throughout the school year, consisting of six full-day meetings and five after-school meetings.

The professional development intervention is informed by cognitive, sociocognitive, and sociocultural theory. In their cognitive process theory of writing, Flower and Hayes ( 1981 ) posit that writing is best understood “as a set of distinct thinking processes which writers orchestrate and organize during the act of composing” (p. 375), including planning, organizing, goal setting, translating, monitoring, reviewing, evaluating, and revising. They liken these processes to a “writer’s tool kit” (p. 385), which is not constrained by any fixed order or series of stages.

In describing the difficulty of composing written texts, Flower and Hayes ( 1980 ) aptly conceptualized writers as simultaneously juggling “a number of demands being made on conscious attention” (p. 32). While all learners face similar cognitive, linguistic, communicative, contextual, and textual constraints when learning to write (Frederiksen & Dominic, 1981), the difficulties younger, inexperienced, and underprepared students face are magnified. For these students, juggling constraints can cause cognitive overload. For example, ELs are often cognitively overloaded, especially in mainstreamed classrooms where they are held to the same performance standards as native English speakers (Short & Fitzsimmons, 2007 ).

Graham ( 2018 ) has pointed out that “available cognitive models mostly ignore cultural, social, political, and historical influences on writing development” (p. 272). He asserts that writing is “inherently a social activity, situated within a specific context” (p. 273). This view echoes Langer ( 1991 ) who, drawing on Vygotsky ( 1986 ), suggests that literacy is the ability to think and reason like a literate person within a particular society. In other words, literacy is culture specific and meaning is socially constructed. From a sociocognitive perspective, teachers should pay more attention to the social purposes to which literacy skills are applied, and should go beyond delivering lessons on content to impart strategies for thinking necessary to complete literacy tasks, first with guidance and, ultimately, independently.

Finally, sociocultural theory views meaning as being “negotiated at the intersection of individuals, culture, and activity” (Englert et al., 2006 , p. 208). Three tenets of sociocultural theory are applicable to the intervention (Adapted from Englert et al., 2006 ): (1) Cognitive apprenticeships: in which novices learn literate behaviors through the repeated modeling of more mature, experienced adults or peers to provide access to strategies and tools demonstrated by successful readers and writers (Vygotsky, 1986 ). (2) Procedural facilitators and tools: where teachers are most effective when they lead cognitive development in advance of what students can accomplish alone by presenting challenging material along with procedural and facilitative tools to help readers and writers address those cognitive challenges. (3) Community of practice: the establishment of communities of practice in which teachers actively encourage students to collaborate and provide ongoing opportunities and thoughtful activities that invite students to engage in shared inquiry.

The central core of the PD is the use of cognitive strategies to support all students in reading and writing about complex text. Cognitive strategies are conceptual tools and processes that can help students become more meta-cognitive about their work. The following are the cognitive strategies introduced in the PD:

Planning and Goal Setting, Tapping Prior Knowledge, Asking Questions and Making Predictions, Constructing the Gist, Monitoring, Revising Meaning, Reflecting and Relating, and Evaluating. Some sub-components are: Visualizing, Making Connections, Summarizing, Adopting an Alignment, Forming Interpretations, Analyzing Author’s Craft, and Clarifying Understanding (Olson, 2011 , p. 23)

The primary intent of the professional development is to provide teachers with lessons and materials to introduce the cognitive strategies to students toward the intended goal of improving students’ analytical essays about either fiction or non-fiction texts.

Teachers also learned specific writing strategies to help students revise their writing. To avoid “teaching to the test,” teachers use a different text, but similar in topic as the text used for the writing assessment as a training tool in order to model how to revise the pre-test into a multiple draft essay. Throughout a series of mini-lessons, students are taught a variety of skills through examining a mentor text/essay based on the training text. Students first read the training text using the aforementioned 15 cognitive strategies. Then, they are given a writing prompt similar to the one they used on the writing assessment. This writing prompt is dissected by having students fill out a Do/What Chart which instructs students to circle all of the verbs (Do) and underline all of the task words (What) in the prompt and transfer the verbs and tasks words onto a T-chart to help them understand what they are being asked to do (for example, “Select one important theme and create a theme statement.”) Then, students are given a mentor text/essay addressing the prompt they just dissected. This mentor text/essay is analyzed for the moves the writer makes, particularly in how he or she constructed the introduction, body paragraphs, and conclusion.

When working with the introduction, students are taught the HoT S-C Team (Hook/TAG/Story-Conflict/Thesis) acronym. The students are to identify that a writer often starts with an engaging hook that could be a quote, question or statement to make people think, fact, or even anecdote; then identifies the title-author-genre (TAG) of the text being written about to set the context for writing; adds purposeful summary of the story or conflict, and includes a thesis (claim).

Each component of the mentor text is color-coded using yellow (for summary sentences), green (for textual evidence), and blue (for student commentary) to help the students understand that a balance of purposeful summary, textual evidence, and commentary is important when constructing an analytical essay. Additionally, students are also taught about grammar brushstrokes (Noden, 2011 ) such as adding adjectives out of order, appositives, or using active verbs and are encouraged to revise some of their sentences with these brushstrokes to enhance sentence variety.

One of the essential activities in this intervention is to have teachers help students revise their on-demand writing samples into a more polished analytical essay, after these writing samples have been read and commented on by trained readers. It is during this part of the main study that our team decided to conduct the sub study on student self-efficacy. Given that all teachers experienced and received the same professional development and, in turn, taught the same revision strategies to their students, the only difference that we tested rested solely on asking the treatment students to use the Pre-Test Essay Revision Planner and Revised Pre-Test Reflection form. This self-assessment, planning and goal setting, and reflection strategy is aligned to Hayes’ ( 2012 ) control level of writing, which involves student self-efficacy. A more detailed explanation of this new intervention strategy follows.

Student intervention: pre-test revision planner and revised pre-test reflection form

In prior studies of our intervention, we have routinely asked teachers to analyze their students’ pre-tests as a formative assessment and to fill out their own reflection planner regarding their students’ strengths and areas needing growth as a tool to help with instruction. After reading about how much student self-efficacy influences writing outcomes (Bruning et al., 2013 ), we wondered if having students participate in assessing their own strengths and areas for improvement as writers and fill out a reflection similar to the one their teachers created would lead to better writing outcomes. With the consent of teachers participating in the intervention, we randomized the teachers’ classes into two groups. The comparison group received instruction from their teacher on how to revise their pre-test essays and were provided with comments from a trained reader. The treatment group not only received instruction from the teacher and comments from a trained reader, but also conducted a self-assessment of their work and filled out the Pre-Test Essay Revision Planner and Revised Pre-Test Reflection form to describe their process and assess the quality of their product after revising. Since all the students, treatment and comparison groups, participated in the same intervention and were taught the same strategies, this study tests the impact of the Pre-Test Essay Revision Planner and Revised Pre-Test Reflection form on students’ self-efficacy and writing quality. To promote treatment fidelity, all teachers, treatment and comparison, were required to submit their students’ revised pre-tests to the intervention developers in order to receive their stipend for participating in the year-long study. Treatment teachers were also required to submit the Pre-Test Essay Revision Planner planner.

To elaborate, the process we took treatment students involved two steps. The first part of the Pre-Test Essay Revision Planner (see Appendix 1) asked students to self-assess what they did effectively as writers on their essay and what they might have struggled with on the writing task. They were then asked to decide on goals for revisions in bulleted form, weighing suggestions by trained readers who commented on their papers. These were action steps the student proposed to take when revising his or her essay. After they have completed their revision, students reflected on what changes they made, what they were most proud of, and what their teacher did to help them reach their revision goals using the Revised Pre-Test Reflection form. In the comparison condition, students revised their pretests, but without the use of a planner, keeping everything else equal.

Sample student pre-test, revision planner, and revised pre-test

This section illustrates the multi-faceted components of the intervention. We start by examining a student’s pre-test with commentary from an experienced reader, then her revision planner, next her revised pre-test, and finally her self-assessment and reflection and consider how these components affect a student’s self-efficacy in writing.

The prompt the student responded to was an analysis of Virginia Driving Hawk Sneve’s short story “The Medicine Bag” for its theme as exhibited through the evolving relationship between the narrator and his great-grandfather as he visits him unexpectedly and the symbolism behind the gift he leaves the narrator prior to his passing (Fig. 1 ):

Student’s Pre-test with some commentary

The student’s attempt at the on-demand essay consists almost exclusively of summary, indicating that her command of analytical writing is still developing. The student starts the analysis with “In the beginning of the story…” followed by a long summary of the plot and puts forth the claim “this proves that Martin is embaress [sic] of his grandpa…” While this is not a theme statement it does indicate the writer’s understanding of the text. The trained reader also notes the writer’s recognition that the character changes over time and encourages her to focus on the author’s message or lesson when she revises (Fig. 2 ).

Trained reader’s letter to the student

The comments the student received from the trained reader focused revision on connecting commentary to textual evidence, developing a theme statement, and the role symbols play in the story. These types of comments are quite typical of the responses many students in this study received from our trained readers. After teachers received these comments and reviewed them, they passed these papers back to their students and treatment teachers had students fill out the Pre-Test Essay Revision Planner (see Fig.  3 ). We conjecture that this opportunity to self-assess may contribute to her persistence through the revision process better than her comparison peers who may only rely on given feedback, but no reflection nor goal setting (Bruning & Kauffman, 2016 ).

Student’s Pre-test essay revision planner

In her Pre-Test Essay Revision Planner, the student first focused on the strengths of her essay—what she did well. Then she addressed what she struggled with or didn’t do as well in her essay. Next, she set a goal to revise the introduction, by including a hook and TAG which indicates Title, Author, and Genre, and especially to “talk more about the message.” Much of what the student plans to do is quite specific to revising the introduction; revising an introduction and knowing what is expected can help students produce more focused papers that are organized with a clear direction in terms of analysis. Below is her revision of the writing assessment (Fig. 4 ):

Student’s revised Pre-test

The student’s revision is a noticeable improvement over her original pre-test. The revision has included a hook (e.g., an anecdote around traditions), attempts a theme statement (e.g., the importance of traditions), addresses the changing the relationship between the narrator and his grand-father, and also focuses on the medicine bag as a symbol. Notice how the student meets her revision goals, but also takes up the suggestion to focus on symbolism. The moves the student makes from pre-test to revision are akin to a student that makes a transition from knowledge-telling (e.g., summary) to knowledge-transformation (e.g., commentary) in their writing (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1987 ). For example, in the students’ pre-test, she summarized how Martin exaggerates about his grandfather but did not explain how this exaggeration relates to his embarrassment. In the revision of this paper, the student explains, in detail, why Martin was embarrassed by his grandfather and why he felt compelled to make him seem more “glamorous” and larger than life. Moreover, the reflection on the revisions she made (below) demonstrates ownership over her revision process, with her teacher’s help (Fig. 5 ):

Student’s Revised Pre-Test Reflection

The student recognizes the changes she made from her pre-test to the revised version, particularly the inclusion of a message or theme statement and the improvements she made. She also emphasized how helpful her teacher was in helping her revise her body paragraphs, which was a goal that was not particularly emphasized on her revision planner, but proved to be a writing move that was successfully executed. The student exhibited a strong sense of self-efficacy. Note, her expression of pride in working on and completing the assignment).

Data collection and measures

Self-efficacy for writing scale.

To examine student growth in self-efficacy, particularly in writing, we adapted a pre-existing self-efficacy in writing measure called the Self-Efficacy for Writing Scale (SEWS), reliably measured by another research team (Bruning et al., 2013 ), by adding additional questions regarding revision practices. After cleaning the data for complete entries at pre and post-survey, our sample size consisted of 214 students who had completely filled out a pre and post-survey. The SEW survey had 22 Likert-scale questions on a scale from 1 to 5 in terms of how much they agree with each statement. To further analyze the SEW survey, but to also simplify the analytical process, we also conducted a factor analysis to reduce the number of components and created four composites, for specific areas of self-efficacy, as a result. The four composites used in our analysis, the questions that pertained to each one, and the factor loadings after applying orthogonal varimax rotations (Abdi, 2003 ) are in Table 1 below:

Ideation groups questions regarding students’ ideas and content in their essays together; Syntax pertains to students’ focus on grammar, spelling, and paragraph formation; Volition pertains to students’ abilities to follow-through with their assignment and complete it; and Revision questions pertain to students’ abilities to revise their paper for specific skills.

Academic writing assessment

In order to test the impact of an increase in self-efficacy in writing on students’ analytical writing, we used students’ scores on the Academic Writing Assessment, a writing assessment created for our intervention, that is administered to students prior to the intervention and after revision of the pre-test. Two prompts (one on “The Medicine Bag” and one on “Ribbons”) were created regarding two texts where the main character’s relationship with a grandparent changes throughout the story. The students stated a claim or theme statement about relationships and use textual evidence to support this theme. To control for prompt effects half of the students wrote to one of these prompts at pre-test and wrote to the other prompt at post-test, and vice versa.

Approximately twenty papers were randomly selected for scoring per teacher. Assessments were scored in a double blind process over four hours where the scorer neither knew if the paper they were scoring was written by a treatment or comparison student nor whether they were scoring a pre-test or post-test. Each paper was read twice and given a score from a range of 1 to 6, with possible score points from 2 to 12. If the two readers differed by more than two points (e.g., a 2 and 4) then a third, more experienced reader also gave the paper a score. If the third reader’s score matches either the first or the second reader, the third reader’s score was added to the score it matched. If the third reader’s score fell in between the first and second reader’s score, the third reader’s score was kept and the average of the first and second reader’s score was added to the kept score. All papers were scored in such a manner during a scoring event held over four hours. Raters agreed within a score point or better for 95% of the papers; 5% required a third reading, and 49% of the papers had exact agreements between the two scorers.

Pre-test essay revision planner and revised pre-test reflection form

To reiterate, the form asked students to self-assess, plan and goal set during revision, and reflect on the process after finishing their revisions. The reflection side of the planner was inspired by Daniel et al. ( 2015 ) who found that students who wrote a cover letter to their instructors detailing the changes they made to a revised paper, based on instructor feedback, submitted higher-quality revised papers than their control peers. The theory of change behind this planner is that it encourages students to identify problem areas, set goals, and remind them of these goals as they revise their pretest, encouraging them to accomplish these goals (see Daniel et al., 2015 ).

Student interviews

A sub-set of students from both the comparison and treatment classrooms were selected for interview purposes. Without knowing students’ AWA scores, teachers were asked to nominate one developing writer and one more proficient writer for the interviews. Selected students were provided with their pre-test, their revised pre-test, and their post-test; treatment students also were provided with their Pre-Test Essay Revision Planner and Revised Pre-Test Reflection form. Students were interviewed in the same room, but sat far away enough from each other so that ambient noise from the other interview being conducted would not be captured. Students were asked a series of open-ended questions (see Appendix 2) about their identities as writers (e.g., From a scale of 1 to 10, how would you rate yourself as a writer?); about their revision process; and what helped them to revise their papers/to meet their goals.

Research procedures

Randomly selected teachers chose one focal class with which to conduct these research activities:

Students in the selected classes were asked to take two timed on-demand writing assessments–one at the beginning of the school year and one at the end of the school year. These essays were scored during a double-blind session based on the Academic Writing Assessment (AWA) rubric that we created and validated in other studies (see Olson et al., 2017 ).

The students also took two self-efficacy in writing (SEW) surveys, one at the beginning of the school year and one at the end of the school year.

In between the two SEW surveys students’ teachers either were randomly assigned to have students reflect on their writing or not to reflect on their writing using the Pre-Test Essay Revision Planner and Revised Pre-Test Reflection form while revising their pretests.

Afterwards, two students from each class were randomly interviewed on their writing process with questions that focused on their identity as a writer and what helped them as writers.

Data analysis

To analyze growth on our SEW measure, we ran t-tests to measure change from pre to post on each of our aforementioned components from our factor analysis (ideation, syntax, volition, and revision). We then also ran t-tests to measure change from pre to post on the AWA differentiating between the treatment and comparison groups in order to test the impact of self-efficacy in writing on timed on-demand writing tasks.

Students’ revision-planners and post-revision reflections were analyzed for the types of goals students created for themselves by looking at idea units. Student interviews were transcribed by the first and second author, divided into idea units, and coded for students’ revision processes and what strategies/resources might have assisted them in doing so. Codes were independently generated and then verified between the two coders until they were agreed upon (Miles & Huberman, 2008).

Students with higher self-efficacy have better writing outcomes

When analyzing AWA scores, treatment students grew 1.90 points and the control students grew 1.33 points from pre to posttest. Both gains were statistically significant ( p  < 0.001), indicating that the intervention had a positive impact on all participating students. However, differences in differences confirm that the treatment students had statistically significant greater gains than their control peers (△ = 0.57; p  < 0.001).

Students’ reflections have positive impact on students’ self-efficacy in writing

At post-survey, the treatment SEW mean increased to 3.63 ( p  < 0.76) and the control mean decreased to 3.47 ( p  < 0.37). Differences in differences analysis revealed a slight statistical difference ( p  < 0.10; △ = 0.11). The alpha level reported for the SEW items was 0.90.

Table 2 displays the pre to post means for the four composites from our factor analysis of the SEW questions: Ideation (idea formation); Syntax (grammar); Volition (persistence), and Revision (revision for clarity and content).

Based on these results, treatment students grew more than their comparison peers in the area of Revision strategies by 0.21 points; whereas, they both decreased in their Volition scores. However, the treatment students had less of a decline (e.g., -0.05 rather than -0.28 points). It is possible that both treatment and comparison students, who are in sixth grade, do not yet feel confident in producing high quality-writing samples during on-demand timed conditions; yet both groups managed to do so.

Students cite teacher instruction as most helpful in revising their writing

Qualitative analysis of the student interviews revealed that treatment students perceived the planner as being helpful as it provided them with a road map and check list as to what to focus on in the revision of their pre-test essay. For example, one student explained that her revision planner helped her “to know what I was supposed to do to my new revision.” She was able to reference her planner as she wrote and notice things that she forgot to include, which she then went back to add into the appropriate part of her essay. Additionally, for this student, filling out the planner was a process scaffolded by the written feedback she had received from the aforementioned trained reader as well as from her classroom teacher. It was the feedback and concrete suggestions she received, such as the reader comment that told her “I should add an author name, TAG line, and a title” and her teacher who suggested she “put it [my writing] in paragraphs and organize them,” that she used to set goals for herself in terms of what changes to make in order to improve her pretest. These comments were reflected in the list that the student wrote for herself on her revision planner, which included notes like “add a title,” “add a hook,” “organize paragraphs,” and “add the author’s name.” In her interview, when comparing her drafts, she pointed out these details like the hook and title she added as proof that she had made successful revisions. Other students who found the planner helpful reported similar experiences, such as working on the planner as a class with the guidance of the teacher, focusing on the different elements of essay writing they had learned about through the school year such as the parts of a strong introduction. One student even wrote down “reread the writing prompt” in her planner as part of her list of things to do, highlighting the use of her planner as a list of actionable steps for revising.

Moreover, it was particularly important that teachers taught or modeled specific strategies to address the revisions students needed to make, like showing them examples of how essay writers organize information into multiple paragraphs. One student said, for instance, that one thing that really helped her in her revisions was all the review and practice that her teacher had them do over the course of the year. These included reviewing specific aspects of “what to do in an essay, like how to start it and how to end it and when we should put the body paragraphs.” The fact that her teacher returned to these concepts more than once helped her remember what to consider when it came time to revise her pretest.

Many students felt their teachers modeled helpful strategies to develop a claim and to write a strong introduction. Writing hooks and including important information about the texts they were analyzing like the title, author, and genre, for example, came up frequently. However, students did not provide the same evidence for the development of their body paragraphs, particularly when it came down to providing their own commentary around the evidence they used to back up their claims. Although one student noted that she added details about the story’s characters to her draft to make it better and another stated that she learned that she had to add her own thoughts or opinions into her summary in order to make it a proper essay, there was little mention of specific things to consider or of tying these details or opinions to specific arguments or evidence presented in their papers.

Both treatment and comparison students credited their teachers’ instruction as being most helpful in revising their essay. Some students went so far as to state that before participating in the intervention this year, they had only a vague idea of what an essay was, let alone what parts it was supposed to have. For instance, one student explained that what helped him most in revising was “my teacher” who “was telling us… teaching us basically about theme, the hook, the introduction and the conclusion.” However, treatment students used more self-efficacious words such as the use of the first-person pronoun, “I,” “plans,” “knew what to do,” and were quick to point out exactly which parts of their papers were improved. In contrast, comparison students more often used the more global second-person pronoun, “we” or third-person pronoun “she/he [the teacher,” “told us what to do,” and “lesson” when describing their revision process. Additionally, they were less specific about where and how they improved their papers, explaining that they had improved their papers because they “got an order” or added “more details.” The distinction between the use of pronouns is also a hallmark of self-efficacious individuals who centralize the locus of control around writing to what they can do, rather than external sources such as an authority figure or more knowledgeable other. Though feedback in any form is useful. Individuals who take an active role in their own writing also exhibit better reflective skills (Shantz & Latham, 2011 ), particularly on the items we found on our SEW survey (Parisi, 1994 ).

Our study confirms that the higher a student’s self-efficacy in writing, the higher quality of writing will be produced, even on timed on-demand writing tasks. We also confirmed that teachers’ instructional practices have an impact on students’ self-efficacy in writing (Corkett et al., 2011 ; Schunk & Swartz, 1993 ). Most importantly, our findings suggest that a planned revision process that includes student self-assessment, planning and goal setting, and reflection (McMillan & Hearn, 2008 ) positively impacts self-efficacy. Prompting students to take ownership of their own learning, enabling them to assess their strengths and areas for improvement, providing direction in terms of accomplishing complicated writing tasks, and encouraging them to reflect upon their writing performance are what Hayes’ ( 2012 ) advocated for in his new framework. Students have a goal to improve their pre-test and outline the revision activities that need to be completed, while their teachers provide them with the success criteria and strategies to complete these goals.

Moreover, the process of revising their pre-tests provides students with the opportunities to develop positive affect towards the revision process as they are given opportunities to: (i) reflect on what they did well on their pre-tests and capitalize on their existing knowledge; (ii) observe, learn, and analyze successful writing moves during the revision tutorial by comparing non-examples with examples; (iii) receive constructive written feedback from trained readers on how to revise their pre-test; and (iv) experience and learn explicit writing skills that reduce anxiety as they deconstruct what a prompt is asking for and/or how to provide effective commentary on textual evidence (Bruning & Kauffman, 2016 ; Pajares et al., 2007 ).

The field is looking for interventions that can metaphorically move the needle for students from almost empty to full, particularly in literacy development. In the case of our study, the planner moved the needle for our treatment students because it gave students concrete direction on how to improve their pre-tests and this, in turn, impacted their performance on the post-tests. Our intervention contributes to the knowledge base on the impact reflection and goal setting can have on student writing. All students can benefit from explicit self-regulation and strategy development instruction (Graham & Harris, 1989 ; Harris et al., 2006 ), particularly if they support student reflection, goal setting, and self-monitoring strategies. Similar to Blake et al.’s recommendations ( 2016 ), embedding micro-goals that students can feel are accessible, feasible, and accomplishable can help students feel more in control of the revision process. Having a revision planner makes this process more scaffolded, explicit, and visible to students.

This work also demonstrates the importance of teacher instruction on student writing. As both treatment and comparison students cited their teachers’ instructions as most influential, these findings provide further support that writing instruction requires a teacher who is confident and well-equipped to provide students with guidance on how they can improve their writing. Engaging students in assessing their own strengths and areas for growth and then reflecting on their progress can enhance students’ motivation and commitment. However, a student may not be able to fully meet the goals they have set without explicit (or scaffolded) instruction by the teacher and classroom practice. Such instruction can contribute not only to a student’s self-confidence but also to their sense of competence. Hence, these findings provide further support that students’ self-efficacy is connected to teacher expertise.

Limitations

Though this study has promising results, it is not without limitations. We acknowledge that the sample was small and any findings need to be validated with a larger sample size; however, the fact that statistical significance was achieved demonstrates the potential of the revision planner in helping students develop stronger self-efficacy in writing skills. Additionally, more qualitative studies to triangulate the usefulness of the revision planner are needed to understand how the planner directly translated to results on the post-test.

Implications

Implications from this study demonstrate how important it is to provide students with the skills, strategies, and opportunity to engage in self-assessment and revision processes. This development of their declarative (what), procedural (how), and conditional (why) knowledge of how to compose text-based analytical essays and the pivotal role self-assessment can play in successful revision that can cultivate independent, self-efficacious learners who have the confidence and competence to succeed as analytical writers in secondary school and beyond.

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Pretest Essay Revision Planner and Revised Pretest Reflection.

Pre-Test essay revision planner

Please review the pre-test essay you received with comments from a UCI graduate student and then fill out this form.

When I revise my pre-test, I will do the following:

Revised pre-test reflection

Before you hand your revised pre-test in to your teacher, please respond to these questions:

What changes or additions did you make to your pre-test essay in order to improve it (i.e. strengthened your claim, added brushstrokes, embedded more quotes, etc.)? Give specific examples of what you did. You can even quote from your own essay to demonstrate the improvements you made.

What are you most proud of in this draft?

Do you feel you met the goals you set for yourself when you filled out the Pre-Test Revision Planner?

What did your teacher do that helped you the most to revise your essay?

Post-Test Semi-Structured Interview Protocol (Students).

In what ways has your view of your ability as a writer changed since the beginning of the year? (Feel free to rank yourself on a scale of 1 to 10)

What do you feel most confident about in writing? What are you most proud of accomplishing this year as a writer?

How did you feel when you read the comments you received on your pre-test essay from the UCI Graduate Student?

Can you explain the revisions you made to your pre-test? What goals did you have in re-writing your paper? What did you do to change your essay and why did you change it the way that you did?

What helped you the most to revise your paper? (Tx only: To what degree id you use this planner when you revised? How helpful was it?)

What do you feel are the strengths of your revised essay? Do you feel like you met your goals? (Tx only: Show list on Revision Planner) Why or Why not?

What do you feel you struggled with in revising your essay?

(Have students physically look at pre-test and post-test)

As you compare your pre-test and post-test, do you notice any improvement? If so, in which areas do you think you improved the most from the pre-test to the post-test?

What strategies did you learn and use in writing your essay (and where/when did you first learn these strategies)?

What did the teacher do over the course of the year that you feel was most helpful to you developing as a writer?

In what areas do you think your writing still has the most room for improvement?

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Chung, H.Q., Chen, V. & Olson, C.B. The impact of self-assessment, planning and goal setting, and reflection before and after revision on student self-efficacy and writing performance. Read Writ 34 , 1885–1913 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-021-10186-x

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Accepted : 24 June 2021

Published : 04 July 2021

Issue Date : September 2021

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-021-10186-x

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• Student Self-assessment

Self-assessments encourage students to reflect on their growing skills and knowledge, learning goals and processes, products of their learning, and progress in the course. Student self-assessment can take many forms, from low-stakes check-ins on their understanding of the day’s lecture content to self-assessment and self-evaluation of their performance on major projects. Student self-assessment is also an important practice in courses that use alternative grading approaches . While the foci and mechanisms of self-assessment vary widely, at their core the purpose of all self-assessment is to “generate feedback that promotes learning and improvements in performance” (Andrade, 2019). Fostering students’ self-assessment skills can also help them develop an array of transferable lifelong learning skills, including:

• Metacognition: Thinking about one’s own thinking. Metacognitive skills allow learners to “monitor, plan, and control their mental processing and accurately judge how well they’ve learned something” (McGuire & McGuire 2015).
• Critical thinking: Carefully reasoning about the evidence and strength of evidence presented in support of a claim or argument.
• Reflective thinking: Examining or questioning one’s own assumptions, positionality, basis of your beliefs, growth, etc.
• Self-regulated learning: Setting goals, checking in on one’s own progress, reflecting on what learning or study strategies are working well or not so well, being intentional about where/when/how one studies, etc.

Students' skills to self-assess can vary, especially if they have not encountered many opportunities for structured self-assessment. Therefore, it is important to provide structure, guidance, and support to help them develop these skills over time.

• Create a supportive learning environment so that students feel comfortable sharing their self-assessment experiences ( Create a Supportive Course Climate ).
• Foster a growth-mindset in students by using strategies that show students that abilities can be grown through hard work, effective strategies, and help from others when needed ( Fostering Growth Mindset ; Identifying teaching behaviors that foster growth mindset classroom cultures ).
• Set clear, specific, measurable, and achievable learning outcomes so that students know what is expected of them and can better assess their progress ( Creating and Using Learning Outcomes ).
• Explain the concept of self-assessment and some of the benefits (above).
• Provide students with specific prompts and/or rubrics to guide self-assessment ( assessing student learning with Rubrics ).
• Provide clear instructions (see an example under Rubrics below).
• Encourage students to make adjustments to their learning strategies (e.g., retrieval, spacing, interleaving, elaboration, generation, reflection, calibration; Make It Stick , pp. 200-225) and/or set new goals based on their identified areas for improvement.

Self-Assessment Techniques

Expand the boxes below to learn more about techniques you can use to engage students in self-assessment and decide which would work best for your context.

To foster self-assessment as part of students’ regular learning practice you can embed prompts directly into your formative and summative assignments and assessments. 

• What do you think is a fair grade for the work you have handed in, and why do you think so?
• What did you do best in this task?
• What did you do least well in this task?
• What did you find was the hardest part of completing this task?
• What was the most important thing you learned in doing this task?
• If you had more time to complete the task, what (if anything) would you change, and why?

Providing students the opportunity to regularly engage in writing that allows them to reflect on their learning experiences, habits, and practices can help students retain learning, identify challenges, and strengthen their metacognitive skills. Reflective writing may take the form of short writing prompts related to assignments (see Embedded self-assessment prompts above and Classroom Assessment Techniques ) or writing more broadly about recent learning experiences (e.g., What? So What? Now What? Journals ). Reflective writing is a skill that takes practice and is most effective when done regularly throughout the course ( Using Reflective Writing to Deepen Student Learning ).

Rubrics are an important tool to help students self-assess their work, especially for self-assessment that includes multiple prompts about the same piece of work. If you’re providing a rubric to guide self-assessment, it is important to also provide instructions on how to use the rubric.

Students are using a rubric (e.g., grading rubric for written assignments (docx) ) to self-assess a draft essay before turning it in or making revisions. As part of that process, you want them to assess their use of textual evidence to support their claim. Here are example instructions you could provide (adapted from Beard, 2021):

To self-assess your use of textual evidence to support your claim, please follow these steps:

• In your draft, highlight your claim sentence and where you used textual evidence to support your claim
• Based on the textual evidence you used, circle your current level of skill on the provided rubric
• Use the information on the provided rubric to list one action you can take to make your textual evidence stronger

Self-assessment surveys can be helpful if you are asking students to self-assess their skills, knowledge, attitudes, and/or effectiveness of study methods they used. These may take the form of 2-3 free-response questions or a questionnaire where students rate their agreement with a series of statements (e.g., I am skilled at creating formulas in Excel”, “I can define ‘promissory coup’”, “I feel confident in my study skills”). A Background Knowledge Probe administered at the very beginning of the course (or when starting a new unit) can help you better understand what students already know (or don’t know) about the class subject. Self-assessment surveys administered over time can help you and students assess their progress toward meeting defined learning outcomes (and provide you with feedback on the effectiveness of your teaching methods). Student Assessment of their Learning Gains is a free tool that you can use to create and administer self-assessment surveys for your course.

Wrappers are tools that learners use after completing and receiving feedback on an exam or assignment ( exam and assignment wrappers , post-test analysis ) or even after listening to a lecture ( lecture wrappers ). Instead of focusing on content, wrappers focus on the process of learning and are designed to provide students with a chance to reflect on their learning strategies and plan new strategies before the next assignment or assessment. The Eberly Center at Carnegie Mellon includes multiple examples of exam, homework, and paper wrappers for several disciplines.

References:

Andrade, H. L. (2019). A critical review of research on student self-assessment . Frontiers in Education , 4, Article 87. 

Beard, E. (2021, April 27). The importance of student self-assessment . Northwest Evaluation Association (NWEA).

Brown, P. C., Roediger III, H. L., & McDaniel, M. A. (2014). Make it stick: The science of successful learning . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press

McGuire, S. Y., & McGuire, S. (2015). Teach students how to learn: Strategies you can incorporate into any course to improve student metacognition, study skills, and motivation . New York, NY: Routledge. 

McMillan, J. H., & Hearn, J. (2008). Student Self-Assessment: The Key to Stronger Student Motivation and Higher Achievement . Educational Horizons , 87 (1), 40–49.

Race, P. (2001). A briefing on self, peer and group assessment (pdf) . LTSN Generic Centre, Assessment Series No. 9. 

RCampus. (2023, June 7). Student self-assessments: Importance, benefits, and implementation . 

Teaching (n.d.). Student Self-Assessment . University of New South Wales Sydney.

Further Reading & Resources: 

Bjork, R. (n.d.). Applying cognitive psychology to enhance educational practice . UCLA Bjork Learning and Forgetting Lab.

Center for Teaching and Learning (n.d.). Classroom Assessment Techniques . University of Colorado Boulder.

Center for Teaching and Learning (n.d.). Formative Assessments . University of Colorado Boulder.

Center for Teaching and Learning (n.d.). Student Peer Assessment . University of Colorado Boulder.

Center for Teaching and Learning (n.d.). Summative Assessments . University of Colorado Boulder

Center for Teaching and Learning (n.d.). Summative Assessments: Types . University of Colorado Boulder

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