the human brain presentation

Brain Basics: Know Your Brain

The brain is the most complex part of the human body. This three-pound organ is the seat of intelligence, interpreter of the senses, initiator of body movement, and controller of behavior. Lying in its bony shell and washed by protective fluid, the brain is the source of all the qualities that define our humanity. It is the crown jewel of the human body.

This fact sheet is a basic introduction to the human brain. It can help you understand how the healthy brain works, how to keep your brain healthy, and what happens when the brain doesn't work like it should.

The Structure of the Brain

The brain is like a group of experts. All the parts of the brain work together, but each part has its own special responsibilities. The brain can be divided into three basic units: the forebrain , the midbrain , and the hindbrain .

The hindbrain includes the upper part of the spinal cord, the brain stem, and a wrinkled ball of tissue called the cerebellum . The hindbrain controls the body’s vital functions such as respiration and heart rate.

The cerebellum coordinates movement and is involved in learned movements. When you play the piano or hit a tennis ball, you are activating the cerebellum.

The uppermost part of the brainstem is the midbrain, which controls some reflex actions and is part of the circuit involved in the control of eye movements and other voluntary movements. The forebrain is the largest and most highly developed part of the human brain: it consists primarily of the  cerebrum and the structures hidden beneath it ( see " The Inner Brain").

When people see pictures of the brain it is usually the cerebrum that they notice. The cerebrum sits at the topmost part of the brain and is the source of conscious thoughts and actions. It holds your memories and allows you to plan, imagine, and think. It allows you to recognize friends, read, and play games.

The cerebrum is split into two halves (hemispheres) by a deep fissure. The two cerebral hemispheres communicate with each other through a thick tract of nerve fibers that lies at the base of this fissure, called the corpus callosum. Although the two hemispheres seem to be mirror images of each other, they are different. For instance, the ability to form words seems to lie primarily in the left hemisphere, while the right hemisphere seems to control many abstract reasoning skills.

For some as-yet-unknown reason, nearly all of the signals from the brain to the body and vice versa cross over on their way to and from the brain. This means that the right cerebral hemisphere primarily controls the left side of the body, and the left hemisphere primarily controls the right side. When one side of the brain is damaged, the opposite side of the body is affected. For example, a stroke in the right hemisphere of the brain can leave the left arm and leg paralyzed.

The Cerebral Cortex

Coating the surface of the cerebrum and the cerebellum is a vital layer of tissue the thickness of a stack of two or three dimes. It is called the cortex, from the Latin word for bark. Most of the actual information processing in the brain takes place in the cerebral cortex. When people talk about "gray matter" in the brain, they are talking about the cortex. The cortex is gray because nerves in this area lack the insulation that makes most other parts of the brain appear to be white. The folds in the brain add to its surface area and therefore increase the amount of gray matter and the volume of information that can be processed.

The Geography of Thought

Each cerebral hemisphere can be divided into sections, or lobes, each of which specializes in different functions. To understand each lobe and its specialty, we will take a tour of the cerebral hemispheres.

Frontal lobes

The two  frontal lobes lie directly behind the forehead. When you plan a schedule, imagine the future, or use reasoned arguments, these two lobes do much of the work. One of the ways the frontal lobes seem to do these things is by acting as short-term storage sites, allowing one idea to be kept in mind while other ideas are considered.

Motor cortex

In the back portion of each frontal lobe is a  motor cortex , which helps plan, control, and execute voluntary movement, like moving your arm or kicking a ball.

Parietal lobes

When you enjoy a good meal—the taste, smell, and texture of the food—two sections behind the frontal lobes called the  parietal lobes are at work. The parietal lobes also support reading and arithmetic.

Somatosensory cortex

The forward parts of these lobes, just behind the motor areas, is the somatosensory cortex . These areas receive information about temperature, taste, touch, and movement from the rest of the body.

Occipital lobes

As you look at the words and pictures on this page, two areas at the back of the brain are at work. These lobes, called the  occipital lobes , process images from the eyes and link that information with images stored in memory. Damage to the occipital lobes can cause blindness.

Temporal lobes

The last lobes on our tour of the cerebral hemispheres are the  temporal lobes , which lie in front of the visual areas and nest under the parietal and frontal lobes. Whether you appreciate symphonies or rock music, your brain responds through the activity of these lobes. At the top of each temporal lobe is an area responsible for receiving information from the ears. The underside of each temporal lobe plays a crucial role in forming and retrieving memories, including those associated with music. Other parts of this lobe integrate memories and sensations of taste, sound, sight, and touch.

The Inner Brain

Deep within the brain, hidden from view, lie structures that are the gatekeepers between the spinal cord and the cerebral hemispheres. These structures not only determine our emotional state, but they also modify our perceptions and responses and allow us to initiate movements that without thinking about them. Like the lobes in the cerebral hemispheres, the structures described below come in pairs: each is duplicated in the opposite half of the brain.

The  hypothalamus , about the size of a pearl, directs a multitude of important functions. It wakes you up in the morning and gets the adrenaline flowing during a test or job interview. The hypothalamus is also an important emotional center, controlling the chemicals that make you feel exhilarated, angry, or unhappy. Near the hypothalamus lies the  thalamus , a major clearinghouse for information going to and from the spinal cord and the cerebrum.

An arching tract of nerve cells leads from the hypothalamus and the thalamus to the  hippocampus . This tiny nub acts as a memory indexer—sending memories out to the appropriate part of the cerebral hemisphere for long-term storage and retrieving them when necessary. The  basal ganglia  (not shown) are clusters of nerve cells surrounding the thalamus. They are responsible for initiating and integrating movements. Parkinson’s disease, which results in tremors, rigidity, and a stiff, shuffling walk, affects the nerve cells in the basal ganglia.

The brain and the rest of the nervous system are composed of many different types of cells, but the primary functional unit is a cell called the neuron. All sensations, movements, thoughts, memories, and feelings are the result of signals that pass through neurons. Neurons consist of three parts: the cell body , dendrites , and the axon .

The cell body contains the nucleus, where most of the molecules that the neuron needs to survive and function are manufactured. Dendrites extend out from the cell body like the branches of a tree and receive messages from other nerve cells. Signals then pass from the dendrites through the cell body and travel away from the cell body down an axon to another neuron, a muscle cell, or cells in some other organ.

The neuron is usually surrounded by many support cells. Some types of cells wrap around the axon to form an insulating  myelin sheath . Myelin is a fatty molecule which provides insulation for the axon and helps nerve signals travel faster and farther. Axons may be very short, such as those that carry signals from one cell in the cortex to another cell less than a hair’s width away. Other axons may be very long, such as those that carry messages from the brain all the way down the spinal cord.

The Synapse

Scientists have learned a great deal about neurons by studying the synapse—the place where a signal passes from the neuron to another cell. When the signal reaches the end of the axon it stimulates the release of tiny sacs called  vesicles. These vesicles release chemicals known as  neurotransmitters  into the  synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitters cross the synapse and attach to  receptors on the neighboring cell. These receptors can change the properties of the receiving cell. If the receiving cell is also a neuron, the signal can continue the transmission to the next cell.

Some Key Neurotransmitters At Work

Neurotransmitters are chemicals that brain cells use to talk to each other. Some neurotransmitters make cells more active (called  excitatory ) while others block or dampen a cell's activity (called  inhibitory ).

• Acetylcholine is an excitatory neurotransmitter. It governs muscle contractions and causes glands to secrete hormones. Alzheimer’s disease , which initially affects memory formation, is associated with a shortage of acetylcholine.
• Glutamate is a major excitatory neurotransmitter. Too much glutamate can kill or damage neurons and has been linked to disorders including Parkinson's disease , stroke , seizures, and increased sensitivity to pain .
• GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that helps control muscle activity and is an important part of the visual system. Drugs that increase GABA levels in the brain are used to treat epileptic seizures and tremors in patients with Huntington’s disease .
• Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that constricts blood vessels and brings on sleep. It is also involved in temperature regulation. Low levels of serotonin may cause sleep problems and depression, while too much serotonin can lead to seizures.
• Dopamine  can be excitatory or inhibitory and is involved in mood and the control of complex movements. The loss of dopamine activity in some portions of the brain leads to the muscular rigidity of Parkinson’s disease . Many medications used to treat mental health disorders and conditions work by modifying the action of dopamine in the brain.

Neurological Disorders

The brain is one of the hardest working organs in the body. When the brain is healthy it functions quickly and automatically. But when problems occur, the results can be devastating. NINDS supports research on hundreds of neurological disorders. Knowing more about the brain can lead to the development of new treatments for diseases and disorders of the nervous system and improve many areas of human health.

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Brain Anatomy and How the Brain Works

What is the brain.

The brain is a complex organ that controls thought, memory, emotion, touch, motor skills, vision, breathing, temperature, hunger and every process that regulates our body. Together, the brain and spinal cord that extends from it make up the central nervous system, or CNS.

What is the brain made of?

Weighing about 3 pounds in the average adult, the brain is about 60% fat. The remaining 40% is a combination of water, protein, carbohydrates and salts. The brain itself is a not a muscle. It contains blood vessels and nerves, including neurons and glial cells.

What is the gray matter and white matter?

Gray and white matter are two different regions of the central nervous system. In the brain, gray matter refers to the darker, outer portion, while white matter describes the lighter, inner section underneath. In the spinal cord, this order is reversed: The white matter is on the outside, and the gray matter sits within.

Gray matter is primarily composed of neuron somas (the round central cell bodies), and white matter is mostly made of axons (the long stems that connects neurons together) wrapped in myelin (a protective coating). The different composition of neuron parts is why the two appear as separate shades on certain scans.

Each region serves a different role. Gray matter is primarily responsible for processing and interpreting information, while white matter transmits that information to other parts of the nervous system.

How does the brain work?

The brain sends and receives chemical and electrical signals throughout the body. Different signals control different processes, and your brain interprets each. Some make you feel tired, for example, while others make you feel pain.

Some messages are kept within the brain, while others are relayed through the spine and across the body’s vast network of nerves to distant extremities. To do this, the central nervous system relies on billions of neurons (nerve cells).

Main Parts of the Brain and Their Functions

At a high level, the brain can be divided into the cerebrum, brainstem and cerebellum.

The cerebrum (front of brain) comprises gray matter (the cerebral cortex) and white matter at its center. The largest part of the brain, the cerebrum initiates and coordinates movement and regulates temperature. Other areas of the cerebrum enable speech, judgment, thinking and reasoning, problem-solving, emotions and learning. Other functions relate to vision, hearing, touch and other senses.

Cerebral Cortex

Cortex is Latin for “bark,” and describes the outer gray matter covering of the cerebrum. The cortex has a large surface area due to its folds, and comprises about half of the brain’s weight.

The cerebral cortex is divided into two halves, or hemispheres. It is covered with ridges (gyri) and folds (sulci). The two halves join at a large, deep sulcus (the interhemispheric fissure, AKA the medial longitudinal fissure) that runs from the front of the head to the back. The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body, and the left half controls the right side of the body. The two halves communicate with one another through a large, C-shaped structure of white matter and nerve pathways called the corpus callosum. The corpus callosum is in the center of the cerebrum.

The brainstem (middle of brain) connects the cerebrum with the spinal cord. The brainstem includes the midbrain, the pons and the medulla.

• Midbrain. The midbrain (or mesencephalon) is a very complex structure with a range of different neuron clusters (nuclei and colliculi), neural pathways and other structures. These features facilitate various functions, from hearing and movement to calculating responses and environmental changes. The midbrain also contains the substantia nigra, an area affected by Parkinson’s disease that is rich in dopamine neurons and part of the basal ganglia, which enables movement and coordination.
• Pons. The pons is the origin for four of the 12 cranial nerves, which enable a range of activities such as tear production, chewing, blinking, focusing vision, balance, hearing and facial expression. Named for the Latin word for “bridge,” the pons is the connection between the midbrain and the medulla.
• Medulla. At the bottom of the brainstem, the medulla is where the brain meets the spinal cord. The medulla is essential to survival. Functions of the medulla regulate many bodily activities, including heart rhythm, breathing, blood flow, and oxygen and carbon dioxide levels. The medulla produces reflexive activities such as sneezing, vomiting, coughing and swallowing.

The spinal cord extends from the bottom of the medulla and through a large opening in the bottom of the skull. Supported by the vertebrae, the spinal cord carries messages to and from the brain and the rest of the body.

The cerebellum (“little brain”) is a fist-sized portion of the brain located at the back of the head, below the temporal and occipital lobes and above the brainstem. Like the cerebral cortex, it has two hemispheres. The outer portion contains neurons, and the inner area communicates with the cerebral cortex. Its function is to coordinate voluntary muscle movements and to maintain posture, balance and equilibrium. New studies are exploring the cerebellum’s roles in thought, emotions and social behavior, as well as its possible involvement in addiction, autism and schizophrenia.

Brain Coverings: Meninges

Three layers of protective covering called meninges surround the brain and the spinal cord.

• The outermost layer, the dura mater , is thick and tough. It includes two layers: The periosteal layer of the dura mater lines the inner dome of the skull (cranium) and the meningeal layer is below that. Spaces between the layers allow for the passage of veins and arteries that supply blood flow to the brain.
• The arachnoid mater is a thin, weblike layer of connective tissue that does not contain nerves or blood vessels. Below the arachnoid mater is the cerebrospinal fluid, or CSF. This fluid cushions the entire central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and continually circulates around these structures to remove impurities.
• The pia mater is a thin membrane that hugs the surface of the brain and follows its contours. The pia mater is rich with veins and arteries.

Lobes of the Brain and What They Control

Each brain hemisphere (parts of the cerebrum) has four sections, called lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital. Each lobe controls specific functions.

• Frontal lobe. The largest lobe of the brain, located in the front of the head, the frontal lobe is involved in personality characteristics, decision-making and movement. Recognition of smell usually involves parts of the frontal lobe. The frontal lobe contains Broca’s area, which is associated with speech ability.
• Parietal lobe. The middle part of the brain, the parietal lobe helps a person identify objects and understand spatial relationships (where one’s body is compared with objects around the person). The parietal lobe is also involved in interpreting pain and touch in the body. The parietal lobe houses Wernicke’s area, which helps the brain understand spoken language.
• Occipital lobe. The occipital lobe is the back part of the brain that is involved with vision.
• Temporal lobe. The sides of the brain, temporal lobes are involved in short-term memory, speech, musical rhythm and some degree of smell recognition.

Deeper Structures Within the Brain

Pituitary gland.

Sometimes called the “master gland,” the pituitary gland is a pea-sized structure found deep in the brain behind the bridge of the nose. The pituitary gland governs the function of other glands in the body, regulating the flow of hormones from the thyroid, adrenals, ovaries and testicles. It receives chemical signals from the hypothalamus through its stalk and blood supply.

Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is located above the pituitary gland and sends it chemical messages that control its function. It regulates body temperature, synchronizes sleep patterns, controls hunger and thirst and also plays a role in some aspects of memory and emotion.

Small, almond-shaped structures, an amygdala is located under each half (hemisphere) of the brain. Included in the limbic system, the amygdalae regulate emotion and memory and are associated with the brain’s reward system, stress, and the “fight or flight” response when someone perceives a threat.

Hippocampus

A curved seahorse-shaped organ on the underside of each temporal lobe, the hippocampus is part of a larger structure called the hippocampal formation. It supports memory, learning, navigation and perception of space. It receives information from the cerebral cortex and may play a role in Alzheimer’s disease.

Pineal Gland

The pineal gland is located deep in the brain and attached by a stalk to the top of the third ventricle. The pineal gland responds to light and dark and secretes melatonin, which regulates circadian rhythms and the sleep-wake cycle.

Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid

Deep in the brain are four open areas with passageways between them. They also open into the central spinal canal and the area beneath arachnoid layer of the meninges.

The ventricles manufacture cerebrospinal fluid , or CSF, a watery fluid that circulates in and around the ventricles and the spinal cord, and between the meninges. CSF surrounds and cushions the spinal cord and brain, washes out waste and impurities, and delivers nutrients.

Blood Supply to the Brain

Two sets of blood vessels supply blood and oxygen to the brain: the vertebral arteries and the carotid arteries.

The external carotid arteries extend up the sides of your neck, and are where you can feel your pulse when you touch the area with your fingertips. The internal carotid arteries branch into the skull and circulate blood to the front part of the brain.

The vertebral arteries follow the spinal column into the skull, where they join together at the brainstem and form the basilar artery , which supplies blood to the rear portions of the brain.

The circle of Willis , a loop of blood vessels near the bottom of the brain that connects major arteries, circulates blood from the front of the brain to the back and helps the arterial systems communicate with one another.

Cranial Nerves

Inside the cranium (the dome of the skull), there are 12 nerves, called cranial nerves:

• Cranial nerve 1: The first is the olfactory nerve, which allows for your sense of smell.
• Cranial nerve 2: The optic nerve governs eyesight.
• Cranial nerve 3: The oculomotor nerve controls pupil response and other motions of the eye, and branches out from the area in the brainstem where the midbrain meets the pons.
• Cranial nerve 4: The trochlear nerve controls muscles in the eye. It emerges from the back of the midbrain part of the brainstem.
• Cranial nerve 5: The trigeminal nerve is the largest and most complex of the cranial nerves, with both sensory and motor function. It originates from the pons and conveys sensation from the scalp, teeth, jaw, sinuses, parts of the mouth and face to the brain, allows the function of chewing muscles, and much more.
• Cranial nerve 6: The abducens nerve innervates some of the muscles in the eye.
• Cranial nerve 7: The facial nerve supports face movement, taste, glandular and other functions.
• Cranial nerve 8: The vestibulocochlear nerve facilitates balance and hearing.
• Cranial nerve 9: The glossopharyngeal nerve allows taste, ear and throat movement, and has many more functions.
• Cranial nerve 10: The vagus nerve allows sensation around the ear and the digestive system and controls motor activity in the heart, throat and digestive system.
• Cranial nerve 11: The accessory nerve innervates specific muscles in the head, neck and shoulder.
• Cranial nerve 12: The hypoglossal nerve supplies motor activity to the tongue.

The first two nerves originate in the cerebrum, and the remaining 10 cranial nerves emerge from the brainstem, which has three parts: the midbrain, the pons and the medulla.

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The Human Brain: Anatomy, and Functions,

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The Human Brain: Anatomy and Function

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The brain directs our body’s internal functions. It also integrates sensory impulses and information to form perceptions, thoughts, and memories. The brain gives us self-awareness and the ability to speak and move in the world. Its four major regions make this possible: The cerebrum , with its cerebral cortex, gives us conscious control of our actions. The diencephalon mediates sensations, manages emotions, and commands whole internal systems. The cerebellum adjusts body movements, speech coordination, and balance, while the brain stem relays signals from the spinal cord and directs basic internal functions and reflexes.

1. The Seat of Consciousness: High Intellectual Functions Occur in the Cerebrum

The cerebrum is the largest brain structure and part of the forebrain (or prosencephalon). Its prominent outer portion, the cerebral cortex, not only processes sensory and motor information but enables consciousness, our ability to consider ourselves and the outside world. It is what most people think of when they hear the term “grey matter.” The cortex tissue consists mainly of neuron cell bodies, and its folds and fissures (known as gyri and sulci) give the cerebrum its trademark rumpled surface. The cerebral cortex has a left and a right hemisphere. Each hemisphere can be divided into four lobes: the frontal lobe, temporal lobe, occipital lobe, and parietal lobe. The lobes are functional segments. They specialize in various areas of thought and memory, of planning and decision making, and of speech and sense perception.

2. The Cerebellum Fine-Tunes Body Movements and Maintains Balance

The cerebellum is the second largest part of the brain. It sits below the posterior (occipital) lobes of the cerebrum and behind the brain stem, as part of the hindbrain. Like the cerebrum, the cerebellum has left and right hemispheres. A middle region, the vermis, connects them. Within the interior tissue rises a central white stem, called the arbor vitae because it spreads branches and sub-branches through the hemispheres. The primary function of the cerebellum is to maintain posture and balance. When we jump to the side, reach forward, or turn suddenly, it subconsciously evaluates each movement. The cerebellum then sends signals to the cerebrum, indicating muscle movements that will adjust our position to keep us steady.

3. The Brain Stem Relays Signals Between the Brain and Spinal Cord and Manages Basic Involuntary Functions

The brain stem connects the spinal cord to the higher-thinking centers of the brain. It consists of three structures: the medulla oblongata , the pons , and the midbrain . The medulla oblongata is continuous with the spinal cord and connects to the pons above. Both the medulla and the pons are considered part of the hindbrain. The midbrain, or mesencephalon, connects the pons to the diencephalon and forebrain. Besides relaying sensory and motor signals, the structures of the brain stem direct involuntary functions. The pons helps control breathing rhythms. The medulla handles respiration, digestion, and circulation, and reflexes such as swallowing, coughing, and sneezing. The midbrain contributes to motor control, vision, and hearing, as well as vision- and hearing-related reflexes.

4. A Sorting Station: The Thalamus Mediates Sensory Data and Relays Signals to the Conscious Brain

The diencephalon is a region of the forebrain, connected to both the midbrain (part of the brain stem) and the cerebrum. The thalamus forms most of the diencephalon. It consists of two symmetrical egg-shaped masses, with neurons that radiate out through the cerebral cortex. Sensory data floods into the thalamus from the brain stem, along with emotional, visceral, and other information from different areas of the brain. The thalamus relays these messages to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex. It determines which signals require conscious awareness, and which should be available for learning and memory.

5. The Hypothalamus Manages Sensory Impulses, Controls Emotions, and Regulates Internal Functions

The hypothalamus is part of the diencephalon, a region of the forebrain that connects to the midbrain and the cerebrum. The hypothalamus helps to process sensory impulses of smell, taste, and vision. It manages emotions such as pain and pleasure, aggression and amusement. The hypothalamus is also our visceral control center, regulating the endocrine system and internal functions that sustain the body day to day. It translates nervous system signals into activating or inhibiting hormones that it sends to the pituitary gland. These hormones can activate or inhibit the release of pituitary hormones that target specific glands and tissues in the body. Meanwhile, the hypothalamus manages the autonomic nervous system, devoted to involuntary internal functions. It signals sleep cycles and other circadian rhythms, regulates food consumption, and monitors and adjusts body chemistry and temperature.

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External Sources

An article in Science Daily on a research study about REM sleep and the pons , a part of the brain stem.

“ A Neurosurgeon’s Overview of the Brain’s Anatomy ” from the American Association of Neurological Surgeons.

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Chapter 7: Gross Anatomy of the Brain

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The Human Brain Presentation Template

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The human brain is arguably one of the most complex entities in the entire universe. Even though it sits right behind our eyes, we know only a fraction of what this incredible machine is capable of. Recent advancements in science, medicine and technology have offered us a slight understanding of our brain. And to help your brain focus on the important tasks, this amazing slide deck comes with the Left-Brain Right-Brain slide, the Brain Understanding Timeline and the Brain Processes Matrix to give your audience an introduction into this wonderful biological structure.

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Human Brain Presentation Template for Free

Left-brain right-brain slide.

The differences between the left brain and right brain have been a topic brought up very often in personality tests and pop culture, but the science is very real. The analytical and creative sides, even though these terms are overly-simplistic to describe the process, perform different functions of the mind that together make you the whole person that you are.

Brain Understanding Timeline

Ancient Egyptians did not think a lot of the brain. They would just scoop it out through the nostrils and discard of it. Thankfully, now we know better, and this process has been ongoing for hundreds of years. Who knows how many hundreds more until we fully understand this complex machine.

Brain Processes Matrix

Different processes are handled in various areas of the brain. This matrix can help you explain how the amygdala differs from the frontal lobe. It can visually represent the distributions of tasks throughout the brain.

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Not even the most advanced in their field know everything about the brain

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• Prof. Nancy Kanwisher

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• Brain and Cognitive Sciences

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• Sensory-Neural Systems
• Neuroscience
• Cognitive Science

Learning Resource Types

The human brain, lecture notes.

Lecture 1: Introduction (PDF)

Lecture 2: Neuroanatomy (PDF - 1.6MB)

Lecture 3. Master Class: Human Brain Dissection (in-class dissection—video not recorded; lecture notes not provided)

Lecture 4: Cognitive Neuroscience Methods I (PDF - 4.2MB)

Lecture 5: Cognitive Neuroscience Methods II (PDF - 1.5MB)

Lecture 6: Experimental Design (PDF - 1.1MB)

Lecture 7: Category Selectivity, Controversies, and MVPA (PDF - 1.3MB)

Lecture 8: Navigation I (PDF - 2.3MB)

Lecture 9: Navigation II (PDF - 2.3MB)

Lecture 10: Development, Nature & Nurture I (PDF - 2.2MB)

Lecture 11: Development, Nature & Nurture II (2018) (PDF - 1.6MB)

Lecture 12: Brain-Machine Interface (video unavailable; lecture notes not provided)

Lecture 13: Number (PDF - 2MB)

Lecture 14: New Methods Applied to Number (student breakout groups—video not recorded; lecture notes not provided)

Lecture 15: Hearing and Speech (PDF - 1.6MB)

Lecture 16: Music (PDF - 4.6MB)

Lecture 17: MEG Decoding and RSA (video not recorded; lecture notes not provided)

Lecture 18: Language I (PDF - 1.7MB)

Lecture 19: Language II (class canceled—video not recorded; lecture notes not provided)

Lecture 20: Mentalizing and Theory of Mind (PDF - 6.3MB)

Lecture 21: Brain Networks (PDF - 3.1MB)

Lecture 22: Experimental Design (student breakout groups—video not recorded; lecture notes not provided)

Lecture 23: Deep Networks (2021) (video and notes for this lecture will be added soon)

Lecture 24: Attention and Awareness (PDF - 2.8MB)

Lecture 25: Recap of Course & Final Review (video not recorded; lecture notes not provided)

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The Human Brain

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• How your brain works

The brain and nervous system

The brain contains billions of nerve cells arranged in patterns that coordinate thought, emotion, behavior, movement and sensation.

A complicated highway system of nerves connects the brain to the rest of your body, so communication can occur in seconds. Think about how fast you pull your hand back from a hot stove. While all the parts of the brain work together, each part is responsible for a specific function — controlling everything from your heart rate to your mood.

The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. It's what you probably visualize when you think of brains in general. The outermost layer of the cerebrum is the cerebral cortex, also called the "gray matter" of the brain. Deep folds and wrinkles in the brain increase the surface area of the gray matter, so more information can be processed.

The cerebrum is divided by a deep groove, also known as a fissure. The groove divides the brain into two halves known as hemispheres. The hemispheres communicate with each other through a thick tract of nerves called the corpus callosum at the base of the groove. In fact, messages to and from one side of the body are usually handled by the opposite side of the brain.

Lobes of the brain

The brain's hemispheres have four lobes.

• The frontal lobes help control thinking, planning, organizing, problem-solving, short-term memory and movement.
• The parietal lobes help interpret feeling, known as sensory information. The lobes process taste, texture and temperature.
• The occipital lobes process images from your eyes and connect them to the images stored in your memory. This allows you to recognize images.
• The temporal lobes help process information from your senses of smell, taste and sound. They also play a role in memory storage.

Cerebellum and brainstem

The cerebellum is a wrinkled ball of tissue below and behind the rest of the brain. It works to combine sensory information from the eyes, ears and muscles to help coordinate movement. The cerebellum activates when you learn to play the piano, for example.

The brainstem links the brain to the spinal cord. It controls functions vital to life, such as heart rate, blood pressure and breathing. The brainstem also is important for sleep.

The inner brain

Structures deep within the brain control emotions and memories. Known as the limbic system, these structures come in pairs. Each part of this system is present in both halves of the brain.

• The thalamus acts as a gatekeeper for messages passed between the spinal cord and the cerebrum.
• The hypothalamus controls emotions. It also regulates your body's temperature and controls functions such as eating or sleeping.
• The hippocampus sends memories to be stored in areas of the cerebrum. It then recalls the memories later.

Peripheral nervous system

All of the nerves in your body that are outside of the brain and spinal cord make up the peripheral nervous system.

It relays information between your brain and your extremities, such as your arms, hands, legs or feet. For example, if you touch a hot stove, pain signals travel from your finger to your brain in a split second. Your brain tells the muscles in your arm and hand to quickly take your finger off the hot stove.

Nerve cells

Nerve cells, known as neurons, send and receive nerve signals. They have two main types of branches coming off their cell bodies. Dendrites receive messages from other nerve cells. Axons carry outgoing messages from the cell body to other cells — such as a nearby neuron or muscle cell.

Interconnected with each other, neurons provide efficient, lightning-fast communication.

Neurotransmitters

A nerve cell communicates with other cells through electrical impulses when the nerve cell is stimulated. Within a neuron, the impulse moves to the tip of an axon and causes the release of chemicals, called neurotransmitters, that act as messengers.

Neurotransmitters pass through the gap between two nerve cells, known as the synapse. They then attach to receptors on the receiving cell. This process repeats from neuron to neuron as the impulse travels to its destination. This web of communication that allows you to move, think, feel and communicate.

• Brain basics: Know your brain. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/public-education/brain-basics/brain-basics-know-your-brain#. Accessed Jan. 10, 2024.
• Anatomy of the brain. American Association of Neurological Surgeons. https://www.aans.org/en/Patients/Neurosurgical-Conditions-and-Treatments/Anatomy-of-the-Brain. Accessed Jan. 10, 2024.
• Brain anatomy and functions. National Cancer Institute. https://www.cancer.gov/rare-brain-spine-tumor/tumors/anatomy/brain-anatomy-functions. Accessed Jan. 10, 2024.
• Overview of peripheral nervous system disorders. Merck Manual Professional Version. https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/neurologic-disorders/peripheral-nervous-system-and-motor-unit-disorders/overview-of-peripheral-nervous-system-disorders. Accessed Jan. 10, 2024.
• Ciurleo R, et al. Parosmia and neurological disorders: A neglected association. Frontiers in Neurology. 2020; doi:10.3389/fneur.2020.543275.

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The Human Brain

Aug 04, 2014

550 likes | 2.1k Views

The Human Brain. By Cris. What I will explain. I will explain in this PowerPoint how the human brain works. I have also made a spongy model of a human brain which took so long to make as well. . What it looks like.

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• cerebral cortex
• gray tissue layers
• parietal lobe

Presentation Transcript

The Human Brain By Cris

What I will explain • I will explain in this PowerPoint how the human brain works. • I have also made a spongy model of a human brain which took so long to make as well.

What it looks like • A brain is an oval shaped organ which sits neatly tucked away safely in your skull approximately 15cm long (half a 30cm ruler) • The brain is made out of thin gray tissue layers called cerebral cortex.

What is a brain? • The brain is made up of 4 lobes. • A cerebrum, otherwise known as the brain, is what is making you be able to read this right now. The brain has 4 different parts; they are the frontal lobe, temporal lobe, occipital lobe and the parietal lobe. • I will explain these 4 different parts of the brain in the following slides.

Frontal lobe • The Frontal lobe organises your thoughts, decisions and plans.

Temporal lobe • The Temporal lobe tells you what your ears are listening to, and what your nose is smelling.

Occipital lobe • The Occipital lobe is where you get your vision from and it also allows you to see colour.

Parietal lobe • It tells your body what you feel with your fingertips and lets you know when you feel pain, or if something is too hot or too cold. • Your parietal lobe is also involved in the control of things like calculating, writing and drawing.

Bibliography • www.google.com.au • http://images.google.com.au • http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/genpsycerebrum.html • http://en.wikipedia.org/whttp:// • http://biology.about.com/od/anatomy/p/cerebrum.htm • http://www.medikidz.com • Atlas Of The Human Body –Vigue-Martin (Rebo Publishers)

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• Introduction

The human brain is perhaps the most complex of all biological systems, with the mature brain composed of more than 100 billion information-processing cells called neurons. [1]  The brain is an organ composed of nervous tissue that commands task-evoked responses, movement, senses, emotions, language, communication, thinking, and memory. The three main parts of the human brain are the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem. See Image. Human Brain, Encephalon.

The cerebrum is divided into the right and left hemispheres and is the largest part of the brain. It contains folds and convolutions on its surface, with the ridges found between the convolutions called gyri and the valleys between the gyri called sulci (plural of sulcus). If the sulci are deep, they are called fissures. Both cerebral hemispheres have an outer layer of gray matter called the cerebral cortex and inner subcortical white matter.

Located in the posterior cranial fossa, above the foramen magnum, the cerebellum's primary function is to modulate motor coordination, posture, and balance. It is comprised of the cerebellar cortex and deep cerebellar nuclei, with the cerebellar cortex being made up of three layers; the molecular, Purkinje, and granular layers. The cerebellum connects to the brainstem via cerebellar peduncles.

The brainstem contains the midbrain, pons, and medulla. It is located anterior to the cerebellum, between the base of the cerebrum and the spinal cord.

• Issues of Concern

Studies of brain function have focused on analyzing the variations of the electrical activity produced by the application of sensory stimuli. However, it is also essential to study additional features and functions of the brain, including information processing and responding to environmental demands. [2]

The brain works precisely, making connections, and is a deeply divided structure that has remained not entirely explained or examined. [3]  Although researchers have made significant progress in experimental techniques, the human cognitive function that emerges from neuronal structure and dynamics is not entirely understood. [4]

• Cellular Level

At the beginning of the forebrain formation, the neuroepithelial cells undergo divisions at the inner surface of the neural tube to generate new progenitors. These dividing neuroepithelial cells transform and diversify, leading to radial glial cells (RGCs).

RGCs also work as progenitors with the capacity to regenerate themselves and produce other types of progenitors, neurons, and glial cells. [5]  RGCs have long processes that connect with the neuroepithelium and function as a guide for the migration of neuron cells to ensure that neurons find their resting place, mature, and send out axons and dendrites to participate directly in synapses and electrical signaling. Neurons get produced along with glial cells; glial cells bring support and create an enclosed environment in which neurons can perform their functions.

Glial cells (astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglial cells) have well-known roles, which include: keeping the ionic medium of neurons, controlling the rate of nerve signal propagation and synaptic action by regulating the uptake of neurotransmitters, providing a platform for some aspects of neural development, and aiding in recovery from neural damage.

Gray matter is the main component of the central nervous system (CNS) and consists of neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, myelinated and unmyelinated axons, glial cells, synapses, and capillaries. The cerebral cortex is made up of layers of neurons that constitute the gray matter of the brain. The subcortical (beneath the cortex) area is primarily white matter composed of myelinated axons with fewer quantities of cell bodies when compared to gray matter.

Although neurons can have different morphologies, they all contain four common regions: the cell body, the dendrites, the axon, and the axon terminals, each with its respective functions.

The cell body contains a nucleus where proteins and membranes are synthesized. These proteins travel through microtubules down to the axons and terminals via a mechanism known as anterograde transport. In retrograde transport, damaged membranes and organelles travel from the axon toward the cell body along axonal microtubules. Lysosomes are only present in the cell body and are responsible for containing and degrading damaged material. The axon is a thin continuation of a neuron that allows electrical impulses to be sent from neuron to neuron.

Astrocytes occupy 25% of the total brain volume and are the most abundant glial cells. [6]  They are classified into two main groups: protoplasmic and fibrous. Protoplasmic astrocytes appear in gray matter and have several branches that contact both synapses and blood vessels. Fibrous astrocytes are present in the white matter and have long fiber-like processes that contact the nodes of Ranvier and the blood vessels. Astrocytes use their connections to vessels to titrate blood flow in synaptic activity responses. Astrocytic endfeet, which forms tight junctions between endothelial cells and the basal lamina, gives rise to the formation of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). [7]

The primary function of oligodendrocytes is to make myelin, a proteolipid critical in maintaining electrical impulse conduction and maximizing velocity. Myelin is located in segments separated by nodes of Ranvier, and their function is equivalent to those of Schwan cells in the peripheral nervous system.

The macrophage populations of the CNS include microglia, perivascular macrophages, meningeal macrophages, macrophages of the circumventricular organs (CVO), and the microglia of the choroid plexus. Microglia are phagocytic cells representing the immune and support system of the CNS and are the most abundant cells of the choroid plexus. [8]

• Development

Human brain development starts with the neurulation process from the ectodermic layer of the embryo and takes, on average, 20 to 25 years to mature. [9]  It occurs in a sequential and organized manner, beginning with the neural tube formation at the third or fourth week of gestation. This is followed by cell migration and proliferation that leads to the folding of the cerebral cortex to increase its size and surface area, creating a more complex structure. Failure of this migration and proliferation leads to a smooth brain without sulci or gyri, termed lissencephaly. [10] At birth, the general architecture of the brain is mostly complete, and by the age of 5 years, the total brain volume is about 95% of its adult size. Generally, the white matter increases with age, while the gray matter decreases with age.

The brain's most prominent white matter structure, the corpus callosum, increases by approximately 1.8% per year between the ages of 3 and 18 years. [11]  The corpus callosum conjugates the activity of the right and left hemispheres and allows for the progress of higher-order cognitive abilities.

Gray matter in the frontal lobe undergoes continued structural development, reaching its maximal volume at 11 to 12 years of age before slowing down during adolescence and early adulthood. The gray matter in the temporal lobe follows a similar development pattern, reaching its maximum size at 16 to 17 years of age with a slight decline afterward. [12]

Below is a list of the brain vesicles and the areas of the brain that develop from them (see Image.  Forebrain or Prosencephalon) .  [13]

Prosencephalon (Forebrain)

• Cerebral cortex
• Basal ganglia (caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus)
• Hippocampus
• Lateral ventricles
• Hypothalamus
• Epithalamus (pineal gland)
• Subthalamus
• Posterior pituitary
• Optic nerve
• Third ventricle

Mesencephalon (midbrain)

• Cerebral aqueduct

Rhombencephalon (hindbrain)

• Fourth ventricle (rostral)
• Fourth ventricle (caudal)
• Organ Systems Involved

The brain and the spinal cord comprise the central nervous system (CNS). The peripheral nervous system (PNS) subdivides into the somatic nervous system (SNS) and the autonomic nervous system (ANS). The SNS consists of peripheral nerve fibers that collect sensory information to the CNS and motor fibers that send information from the CNS to skeletal muscle. The ANS functions to control the smooth muscle of the viscera and glands and consists of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), the parasympathetic nervous system (PaNS), and the enteric nervous system (ENS).

Nerves from the brain connect with multiple parts of the head and body, leading to various voluntary and involuntary functions. The ANS drives basic functions that control unconscious activities such as breathing, digestion, sweating, and trembling.

The ENS provides the intrinsic innervation of the gastrointestinal system and is the most neurochemically diverse branch of the PNS. [14]  Neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine, epinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin have recently been a topic of interest due to their roles in gut physiology and CNS pathophysiology, as they aid in regulating gut blood flow, motility, and absorption. [15]

The cerebrum controls motor and sensory information, conscious and unconscious behaviors, feelings, intelligence, and memory. The left hemisphere controls speech and abstract thinking (the ability to think about things that are not present). In contrast, the right hemisphere controls spatial thinking (thinking that finds meaning in the shape, size, orientation, location, and phenomena). See Figure. Homunculus, Sensory and Motor.

The motor and sensory neurons descending from the brain cross to the opposite side in the brainstem. This crossing means that the right side of the brain controls the motor and sensory functions of the left side of the body, and the left side of the brain controls the motor and sensory functions of the right side of the body. Hence, a stroke affecting the left brain hemisphere, for example, will exhibit motor and sensory deficits on the right side of the body.

Sensory neurons bring sensory input from the body to the thalamus, which then relays this sensory information to the cerebrum. For example, hunger, thirst, and sleep are under the control of the hypothalamus.

The cerebrum is composed of four lobes:

• Frontal lobe: Responsible for motor function, language, and cognitive processes, such as executive function, attention, memory, affect, mood, personality, self-awareness, and social and moral reasoning. [16]  The Broca area is located in the left frontal lobe and is responsible for the production and articulation of speech.
• Parietal lobe: Responsible for interpreting vision, hearing, motor, sensory, and memory functions. 
• Temporal lobe: In the left temporal lobe, the Wernicke area is responsible for understanding spoken and written language. The temporal lobe is also an essential part of the social brain, as it processes sensory information to retain memories, language, and emotions. [17]  The temporal lobe also plays a significant role in hearing and spatial and visual perception.
• Occipital lobe: The visual cortex is located in the occipital lobe and is responsible for interpreting visual information. See Figure.  Areas of localization, Lateral Surface of Hemisphere. 

The cerebellum controls the coordination of voluntary movement and receives sensory information from the brain and spinal cord to fine-tune the precision and accuracy of motor activity. The cerebellum also aids in various cognitive functions such as attention, language, pleasure response, and fear memory. [18]

The brainstem acts as a bridge that connects the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord (see Image. Pathways From the Brain to the Spinal Cord). The brainstem houses the principal centers that perform autonomic functions such as breathing, temperature regulation, respiration, heart rate, wake-sleep cycles, coughing, sneezing, digestion, vomiting, and swallowing. The brainstem contains both white and gray matter. The white matter consists of fiber tracts (neuronal cell axons) traveling down from the cerebral cortex for voluntary motor function and up from the spinal cord and peripheral nerves, allowing somatosensory information to travel to the highest parts of the brain. [19]

The brain represents 2% of the human body weight and consumes 15% of the cardiac output and 20% of total body oxygen. The resting brain consumes 20% of the body's energy supply. When the brain performs a task, the energy consumption increases by an additional 5%, proving that most of the brain's energy consumption gets used for intrinsic functions.

The brain uses glucose as its principal source of energy. During low glucose states, the brain utilizes ketone bodies as its primary energy source. During exercise, the brain can use lactate as a source of energy.

In the developing brain, neurons follow molecular signals from regulatory cells like astrocytes to determine their location, the type of neurotransmitter they will secrete, and with which neurons they will communicate, leading to the formation of a circuit between neurons that will be in place during adulthood. In the adult brain, developed neurons fit in their corresponding place and develop axons and dendrites to connect with the neighboring neurons. [20]

Neurons communicate via neurotransmitters released into the synaptic space, a 20 to 50-nanometer area between neurons. The neuron that releases the neurotransmitter into the synaptic space is called the presynaptic neuron, and the neuron that receives the neurotransmitter is called the postsynaptic neuron. An action potential in the presynaptic neuron leads to calcium influx and the subsequent release of neurotransmitters from their storage vesicle into the synaptic space. The neurotransmitter then travels to the postsynaptic neuron and binds to receptors to influence its activity. Neurotransmitters are rapidly removed from the synaptic space by enzymes. [21]

The oligodendrocytes in the CNS produce myelin. Myelin forms insulating sheaths around axons to allow the swift travel of electrical impulses through the axons. The nodes of Ranvier are gaps in the myelin sheath of axons, allowing sodium influx into the axon to help maintain the speed of the electrical impulse traveling through the axon. This transmission is called saltatory nerve conduction, the "jumping" of electrical impulses from one node to another. It ensures that electrical signals do not lose their velocity and can propagate long distances without signal deterioration. [22]

• Related Testing

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) can track the effects of neural activity and the energy that the brain consumes by measuring components of the metabolic chain. Other techniques, such as single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), study cerebral blood flow and neuroreceptors. Positron emission tomography (PET) assesses the glucose metabolism of the brain. [23]  Electroencephalography (EEG) records the brain's electrical activity and is very useful for detecting various brain disorders. Advancements in these techniques have enabled a broader vision and objective perceptions of mental disorders, leading to improved diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis.

• Pathophysiology

Injury to the brain stimulates the proliferation of astrocytes, an immunological response to neurodegenerative disorders called "reactive gliosis." [24]  Damage to neural tissue promotes molecular and morphological changes and is essential in the upregulation of the glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP). On the other hand, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) allows the transition from non-reactive to reactive astrocytes, and its inhibition improves axonal regeneration and rapid recovery. This means that when astrocytes are reactive, they proliferate and hypertrophy, leading to glial scar formation.

The microglia represent the immune and support system of the CNS. They are neuroprotective in the young brain but can react abnormally to stimuli in the aged brain and become neurotoxic and destructive, leading to neurodegeneration. [25]  As the brain ages, microglia acquire an increasingly inflammatory and cytotoxic phenotype, generating a hazardous environment for neurons. [26]  Hence, aging is the most critical risk factor for developing neurodegenerative diseases.

The brain is surrounded by cerebrospinal fluid and is isolated from the bloodstream by the blood-brain barrier (BBB). In cases like infectious meningitis and meningoencephalitis, acute inflammation causes a breakdown of the BBB, leading to the influx of blood-borne immune cells into the CNS. In other inflammatory brain disorders such as Alzheimer disease (AD), Parkinson disease (PD), Huntington disease (HD), or X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy, the primary insult is due to degenerative or metabolic processes, and there is no breakdown of the BBB. [27]

Oligodendrocyte loss can occur due to the production of reactive oxygen species or the activation of inflammatory cytokines, causing decreased myelin production and leading to conditions such as multiple sclerosis (MS). [22]

Disturbances in the neurotransmitter systems are related to these substances' production, release, reuptake, or receptor impairments and can cause neurologic or psychiatric disorders. Glutamate is the brain's most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter, while GABA is the primary inhibitory transmitter. Glycine has a similar inhibitory action in the posterior parts of the brain. Acetylcholine aids in processes such as muscle stimulation at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ), digestion, arousal, salivation, and level of attention. Dopamine is involved in the reward and motivational component, motor control, and the regulation of prolactin release. Serotonin influences mood, feelings of happiness, and anxiety. Norepinephrine is involved in arousal, alertness, vigilance, and attention. 

Cerebral oxygen delivery and consumption rates are ten times higher than global body values. [28]  Blood glucose represents the primary energy source for the brain, and the BBB is highly permeable to it. During low glucose states, the body has developed multiple ways to keep blood glucose within the normal range. As the level drops below 80 mg/dL, pancreatic beta-cells decrease insulin secretion to avoid further glucose decrease. If glucose drops further, pancreatic alpha-cells secrete glucagon, and the adrenal medulla releases epinephrine. Glucagon and epinephrine increase blood glucose levels. Cortisol and growth hormone also act to increase glucose, but they depend on the presence of glucagon and epinephrine to work.

• Clinical Significance

Damage to the Cerebrum

• Frontal lobe -  Damage to the frontal lobe causes interruption of the higher functioning brain processes, including social behavior, planning, motivation, and speech production. Individuals with frontal lobe damage may be unable to regulate their emotions, have meaningful or appropriate social interactions, maintain their past personality traits, or make difficult decisions. [29]
• Temporal lobe - The Wernicke area is located in the superior temporal gyrus in an individual's dominant hemisphere, which is the left hemisphere for 95% of people. Damage to the left (dominant) temporal lobe can lead to Wernicke aphasia. This is typically referred to as "word salad" speech, where the patient will speak fluently, but their words and sentences will lack meaning. [30]  Damage to the right (non-dominant) temporal lobe may lead to persistent talking and deficits in nonverbal memory, processing certain aspects of sound or music (tone, rhythm, pitch), and facial recognition (prosopagnosia).
• Parietal lobe -  Damage to the frontal aspect of the parietal lobe may lead to impaired sensation and numbness on the contralateral side of the body. An individual may have difficulty recognizing texture and shape and may be unable to identify a sensation and its location on their body. Damage to the middle aspect of the parietal lobe can lead to right-left disorientation and difficulty with proprioception. Damage to the non-dominant (right) parietal lobe may lead to apraxia (difficulty with performing purposeful motions such as combing hair or brushing teeth) and difficulty with spatial orientation and navigation (they may get lost in a once familiar area). Patients with non-dominant parietal lobe damage, usually from a middle cerebral artery stroke, may neglect the side opposite of the brain damage (usually the left side), which may manifest as only shaving the right side of their face or drawing a clock with all of the numbers on the right side of the circle. [31]
• Occipital lobe -  Damage to the occipital lobe may lead to visual defects, color agnosia (inability to identify colors), movement agnosia (difficulty recognizing object movements), hallucinations, illusions, and the inability to recognize written words (word blindness). 

Damage to the Cerebellum

Damage to the cerebellum can lead to ataxia, dysmetria, dysarthria, scanning speech, dysdiadochokinesis, tremor, nystagmus, and hypotonia. To test for possible cerebellar dysfunction, a bedside neurologic exam is commonly the first step. This exam may include the Romberg test, heel-to-shin test, finger-to-nose test, and rapid alternating movement test. [32]

Damage to the Brainstem

Damage to the brainstem may present as muscle weakness, visual changes, dysphagia, vertigo, speech impairment, pupil abnormalities, insomnia, respiratory depression, or death.

Neurodegenerative Diseases

Neuronal degeneration worsens with age and can affect different areas of the brain leading to movement, memory, and cognition problems.

Parkinson disease (PD) occurs due to the degeneration of the neurons that synthesize dopamine, leading to motor function deficits. Alzheimer disease (AD) occurs due to abnormally folded protein deposition in the brain leading to neuronal degeneration. Huntington disease occurs due to a genetic mutation that increases the production of the neurotransmitter glutamate. Excessive amounts of glutamate lead to the death of neurons in the basal ganglia producing movement, cognitive, and psychiatric deficits. Vascular dementia occurs due to the death of neurons resulting from the interruption of blood supply.

Although neurodegenerative diseases are not classically caused by disturbed metabolism, research has shown that there is a reduction in glucose metabolism in Alzheimer disease. [33]

Demyelinating Diseases

Demyelinating diseases result from damage to the myelin sheath that covers the nerve cells in the white matter of the brain, spinal cord, and optic nerves. For example, multiple sclerosis and leukodystrophies are a consequence of oligodendrocyte damage.

A stroke is caused by an interruption in the blood supply to the brain, which may ultimately lead to neuronal death. This condition can result in one of several neurological problems depending on the affected region.

Brain Death

Neurologic evaluation of brain death is a complicated process that non-specialists and families might misunderstand. [34]  Brain death is the complete and irreversible loss of brain activity, including the brainstem. It requires verification through well-established clinical protocols and the support of specialized tests.

Hypoglycemia

Glucose is the primary energy source responsible for maintaining brain metabolism and function. The most significant amount of glucose is used for information processing by neurons. [35]  The brain requires a continuous supply of glucose as it has limited glucose reserves. CNS symptoms and signs of hypoglycemia include focal neurological deficits, confusion, stupor, seizure, cognitive impairment, or death.

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Human Brain, Encephalon. Illustrated brain anatomy includes the cerebrum, cerebellum, and pons; the cerebral, superior, middle, and inferior peduncles; and medulla oblongata. Henry Vandyke Carter, Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Forebrain or Prosencephalon. The illustration depicts the mesial aspect of a brain sectioned in the median sagittal plane, including the foramen of Monro, middle commissure, taenia thalami, habenular commissure, genu, callosum, fornix, (more...)

Areas of localization, Lateral Surface of Hemisphere. The figure depicts the motor area in red, the area of general sensations in blue, the auditory area in green, the visual area in yellow, and the psychic portions in lighter tints. Henry (more...)

Pathways From the Brain to the Spinal Cord. The figure shows the motor tract, anterior nerve roots, anterior and lateral cerebrospinal fasciculus, decussation of pyramids, geniculate fibers, internal capsule, and motor area of cortex. Henry Vandyke Carter, (more...)

Homunculus, Sensory and Motor Contributed by S Bhimji, MD

Disclosure: Kenia Maldonado declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Khalid Alsayouri declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

This book is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ ), which permits others to distribute the work, provided that the article is not altered or used commercially. You are not required to obtain permission to distribute this article, provided that you credit the author and journal.

• Cite this Page Maldonado KA, Alsayouri K. Physiology, Brain. [Updated 2023 Mar 17]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan-.

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