hypothesis of geography

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Hypotheses: types, levels and functions | scientific method | geography.

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In this article we will discuss about:- 1. Types of Hypotheses 2. Levels of Hypothesis 3. Functions 4. Testing.

Types of Hypotheses :

There are several different kinds of hypotheses used in social and/or geographical analysis, studies and research.

However, the primary types of hypotheses are:

(1) Research Hypotheses,

(2) Null Hypotheses,

(3) Scientific Hypotheses, and

(4) Statistical Hypotheses.

1. Research Hypotheses:

Hypotheses derived from the researcher’s theory about some social and/or geographical phenomena are called research hypotheses or ‘working’ hypotheses.

The social investigator usually believes that his/her research hypotheses are true or they are accurate statements about the condition of things he/she is investigating. The investigator believes that these hypotheses are true to the extent that the theory from which they were derived is adequate.

Theories are, in one sense, suppositions about the true nature of things, and thus regarded as tentative statements about reality. Until they have been verified to the scientist’s satisfaction, the hypotheses derived from theories must also be regarded as tentative suppositions about things until they have been tested. Testing hypothesis means to subject it to confirmation or disconfirmation.

2. Null Hypotheses:

Null hypotheses are, in a sense, the reverse of research hypotheses. They are also statements about the reality of things, except that they serve to refute or deny what is explicitly indicated in a given research hypothesis.

Null hypotheses are hypothetical models used to test research hypotheses. The question that arises as why does the social investigator want to bother with so-called null hypotheses? Why doesn’t the investigator test the hypothesis directly and let it go at that?

These questions have been asked time and again by every researcher confronting null hypotheses for the first time. There are at least four explanations why null hypothesis models are used, none of which, however, may answer this question satisfactorily.

i. Trying to show the truthfulness of research hypotheses would imply to some, at least, a definite bias towards trying to confirm one’s suppositions and possibly ignoring those things that would tend to refute our belief.

ii. There are those who would argue that it is easier to find fault with something, i.e. an idea, belief, or hypothesis than to look for those things that would support it.

iii. It may be summed up in one word convention. It is conventional in social research to use null hypotheses. Null hypotheses, however, also perform specific functions in relation to probability theory and tests of research hypotheses.

iv. Under a probability theoretical model, hypotheses have a likelihood of being either true or false. Null hypotheses are particularly useful in such theoretical models. The null hypothesis is an expression of one alternative outcome of a social/physical observation.

The probability model specifies that the null hypotheses may be either true or false but not both simultaneously. Neither the research hypotheses nor the null hypothesis is absolutely true or absolutely false under any given test of it. Both probabilities (being either true or false) co-exist for each type of hypothesis always.

3. Scientific Hypotheses:

In scientific investigation, however, the term hypothesis is often given a somewhat more restricted meaning. To Braithwaite (1960) – A scientific hypothesis is a general proposition about all the things of a certain sort. It is an empirical proposition in the sense that it is testable by experience; experience is relevant to the question as to whether or not the hypothesis is true, i.e. as to whether or not it is a scientific law.’

A scientific hypothesis, in Braithwaite’s tradition, is a particular kind of proposition which, if true, will be accorded the status of a scientific law. The testability of a hypothesis is crucial, but there are many hypotheses within a theoretical system which cannot be directly tested against sense perception data.

Thus, ‘The empirical testing of the deductive system is effected by testing the lowest level hypotheses in the system. The confirmation or refutation of these is the criterion by which the truth of all the hypotheses in the system is tested’.

Since scientific hypothesis is often regarded as being a proposition where truth or falsity is capable of being asserted, the truth and falsity of it (hypothesis) can be determined only with respect to the domain of some theory.

4. Statistical Hypotheses:

These are statements about statistical population that, on the basis of information obtained from observed data, one seeks to support or refute. The statistical population may refer to either people or things. It is generally the case in the test of statistical hypotheses that observations about people or things are reduced in some way to numerical quantities, and decisions are made about these quantities.

To subject these hypotheses to empirical test, what is required is to reduce the variables used in them to measurable quantities. Research hypothesis and corresponding null hypotheses can be transferred into a statistical hypotheses that may be evaluated by numerical means.

Statistical hypotheses are usually established to delineate:

i. Differences between two or more groups regarding some trait or collection of characteristics that they possess,” association between two or more variables within one group or between several groups, and

ii. Point estimates of sample or population characteristics.

Levels of Hypothesis :

Apart from the aforesaid four types of hypotheses, three broad levels of hypotheses may be distinguished on the basis of the level of abstraction, which are as follows:

1. Some hypotheses state the existence of empirical uniformities. These hypotheses frequently, though not always, represent the scientific examination of common-sense propositions. They usually represent, also, a problem about which some ‘common-sense’ observation already exists. There are many types of such empirical uniformities which are common in social science and/or geographical research.

However, these investigations do not involve the testing of hypothesis at all, but are merely adding up the facts. These are not useful hypotheses for they merely represent what everyone already knows.

2. Some hypotheses are concerned with complex ideal types. These hypotheses aim at testing the existence of logically devised relationships between empirical uniformities. One such hypothesis was Ernest W. Burgess’s statement on the concentric growth circles that characterise the city.

This hypothesis was then tested against a variety of variables in a number of cities. That this ideal type does represent the actual patterns of city growth is not accepted by all ecologists, however, and so this formulation remains a hypothesis until a more crucial test of it is made.

Another hypothesis, concerning an ideal type also, results from these same ecological empirical uniformities. This was the notion that areas tend to represent certain characteristics in a series of predictable patterns. This was called the hypothesis of the ‘natural area’.

Much research has been done on this hypothesis, and the results, although they have modified the original statement somewhat, have generally supported it. With the growth of supporting evidence, notions about natural area have become a part of geographical theory rather than remaining hypotheses.

It is important to see that this level of hypothesising moves beyond the expectation of simple empirical uniformity, by creating a complex referent in society. The function of such hypothesis is to create tools and problems for further research in otherwise very complex area of investigation.

3. Some hypotheses are concerned with the relation of analytic variable. These hypotheses occur at a level of abstraction beyond that of ideal types. The hypotheses of empirical uniformities lead to the observation of simple differences, and those dealing with ideal types lead to specific coincidences of observations. The study of analytical variables requires the formulation of a relationship between changes in one property and changes in another.

On the basis of the above discussion, three major points can be identified:

(1) That a hypothesis is a necessary condition for successful research;

(2) That formulation of the hypothesis must be given considerable attention, to clarify its relation to theory, remove vague or value judgemental terms, and specify the test to be applied, and

(3) That hypotheses may be formulated on different levels of abstraction.

Functions of Hypotheses :

Theories are relatively elaborate tools used to explain and predict events. The social scientist develops a theory to account for some social phenomena, and then he devises a means whereby the theory can be tested or subjected to verification or refutation. Seldom does the researcher test theory directly. Most of the time he/she conducts tests of hypotheses that been generated and derived from that theory.

If the hypotheses ‘test out’ as the researcher has specified, or if his empirical observations are in accordance with what has been stated in the hypotheses, we say that his/her theory is supported in part. It usually takes many tests of different hypotheses from the same theory to demonstrate its predictive value and its adequacy as a tool of explanation for some event or sequence of events.

A major function of hypotheses is to make it possible to test theories. In this regard, an alternative definition of a hypothesis is that it is a statement of theory in testable forms. All statements of theory in testable form are called hypotheses.

Some hypotheses are not associated with any particular theory. It could be that as a result of some hypothesis, a theory will be eventually constructed. Consequently, another function of hypotheses is to suggest theories that may account far some event.

Although it is more often the case that research proceeds from theories to hypotheses, occasionally the reverse is true. The social investigator may have some idea about why a given phenomenon occurs and he/she hypothesises a number of things that relate to it.

He/she judges that some hypotheses have greater potential than others for explaining the event, and as a result, he/she may construct a logical system of propositions, assumptions and definitions linking his explanation to the events. In other words, the researcher devises a theory.

Working from the hypothesis back to the theory is not necessarily poor methodology. Eventually, the investigator is going to have to subject the resulting theory to empirical test to determine its adequacy. The predictive value of the theory can be assessed at that time.

Hypotheses also perform a descriptive function. Each time a hypothesis is tested empirically, that tells something about the phenomenon it is associated with. If the hypothesis is supported, then the information about the phenomenon increases.

Even if the hypothesis is refuted, the test tells something about the phenomenon that is not known before. The accumulation of information as a result of hypothesis testing reduces the amount of ignorance we may have about why a social event occurs in a given way.

Hypotheses also have some important secondary functions. As a result of testing certain hypotheses, social policy may be formulated in communities, penal institutions may be redesigned and revamped, teaching methods may be altered or improved solutions to various kinds of social problems may be suggested and implemented, and supervisory practices may be changed in factories and business.

Testing hypotheses refute certain ‘common sense’ notions about human behaviour, raises questions about explanations we presently use to account for things, and most generally alters our orientation towards our environment to one degree or another. All hypotheses have to do with our knowledge of things, and as this knowledge changes, we change also.

Testing Hypotheses :

Testing hypotheses means ‘subjecting them to some sort of empirical scrutiny to determine if they are supported or refuted by what the researcher observes’. Testing hypotheses means that the researcher will need to do a number of things.

Following are the two prerequisites to hypotheses testing:

1. A real social situation is needed that will suffice as a reasonable testing ground for the hypothesis. If the hypothesis concerns managerial behaviour, it will be necessary for the investigator to study some real organisation or organisations where managerial behaviour can be taken into empirically.

This particular prerequisite is frequently spoken of as ‘getting access to data that will enable the investigator to verify or refute his/her hypotheses’. Once a given social setting is selected, the relevant data in that situation must be obtained to make the hypothesis test a valid one.

2. The investigator should make sure that his hypotheses are testable. This means that he/she should limit his/her investigations to empirical phenomena or events that can be taken into through the senses. The variables used in the hypotheses tested should be amenable to measurement of some kind.

If they are not subject to measurement, the resulting test of the hypothesis will be relatively meaningless. Testing hypotheses must be a part of the empirical world. This is a fundamental requirement wherever the scientific method is employed in studying what is and why.

Terms that cannot be taken into empirically, render the hypothesis irrefutable and untestable. How can a scientist reject a hypothesis containing variables that he cannot experience in some empirical form? For example, if a researcher were to hypothesise that ‘evil spirit causes delinquency’, he/she can neither support nor refute this statement by using conventional scientific methods.

He/ she obviously has empirical tools to determine the incidence of delinquent or non-delinquent behaviour, but by what empirical means is he/she able to assess meaningfully the influence or impact of ‘evil spirits’ on delinquent behaviour?

Unless there are empirical means of evaluating the impact of non- empirical phenomena on particular variables, the researcher cannot validly subject the hypothesis to true scientific test. However, it is possible that terms that are presently indefinable empirically, might at some later date become amenable to the senses through the discovery of new means of measuring such phenomena. This always exists as a possibility.

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Introduction
The emergence of geography: exploration and mapping
Geography’s early research agenda in Europe
Geography in the United States
The development of academic geography in the United Kingdom
Physical geography and physical systems
Human geography as locational analysis
Mapmaking and remote sensing
Computational analysis
Geographic information systems
Influence of the social sciences
Linking the human and physical worlds
Physical geography
Human geography
People and the environment: the physical and the human
Methods of geography
Applied geography
The geography of contemporary geography

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Table Of Contents

geography , the study of the diverse environments , places, and spaces of Earth ’s surface and their interactions. It seeks to answer the questions of why things are as they are, where they are. The modern academic discipline of geography is rooted in ancient practice, concerned with the characteristics of places, in particular their natural environments and peoples, as well as the relations between the two. Its separate identity was first formulated and named some 2,000 years ago by the Greeks, whose geo and graphein were combined to mean “earth writing” or “earth description.” However, what is now understood as geography was elaborated before then, in the Arab world and elsewhere. Ptolemy , author of one of the discipline’s first books, Guide to Geography (2nd century ce ), defined geography as “a representation in pictures of the whole known world together with the phenomena which are contained therein.” This expresses what many still consider geography’s essence—a description of the world using maps (and now also pictures, as in the kind of “popular geographies” exemplified by National Geographic Magazine )—but, as more was learned about the world, less could be mapped, and words were added to the pictures.

To most people, geography means knowing where places are and what they are like. Discussion of an area’s geography usually refers to its topography—its relief and drainage patterns and predominant vegetation, along with climate and weather patterns—together with human responses to that environment , as in agricultural, industrial, and other land uses and in settlement and urbanization patterns.

Although there was a much earlier teaching of what is now called geography, the academic discipline is largely a 20th-century creation, forming a bridge between the natural and social sciences. The history of geography is the history of thinking about the concepts of environments, places, and spaces. Its content covers an understanding of the physical reality we occupy and our transformations of environments into places that we find more comfortable to inhabit (although many such modifications often have negative long-term impacts). Geography provides insights into major contemporary issues, such as globalization and environmental change, as well as a detailed appreciation of local differences; changes in disciplinary interests and practices reflect those issues.

Historical development of geography

The history of geography has two main parts: the history of exploration and mapmaking and the development of the academic discipline.

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1 Chapter 1 Introduction to Geography

R. Adam Dastrup

Most individuals define geography as a field of study that deals with maps, yet this definition is only partially correct. A better definition of geography may be the study of natural and human-constructed phenomena relative to a spatial dimension.

The Greek word geographos from which geography is derived, is literally translated as writing ( graphos ) about the Earth ( geo ). Geography differs from the discipline of geology because geology focuses mainly on the physical Earth and the processes that formed and continue to shape it. On the other hand, geography involves a much broader approach to examining the Earth, as it involves the study of humans as well. As such, geography has two major subdivisions, human (social science) and physical (natural science) .

Physical Geography is the study of our home planet and all of its components: its lands, waters, atmosphere, and interior. In this book, some chapters are devoted to the processes that shape the lands and impact people. Other chapters depict the processes of the atmosphere and its relationship to the planet’s surface and all our living creatures. For as long as people have been on the planet, humans have had to live within Earth’s boundaries. Now human life is having a profound effect on the planet. Several chapters are devoted to the effect people have on the planet. Human geography is a social science that focuses on people, where they live, their ways of life, and their interactions in different places around the world. A simple example of a geographic study in human geography would be where is the Hispanic population concentrated in the U.S., and why?

The journey to better understanding Earth begins here with an exploration of how scientists learn about the natural world, along with understanding the science of geography.

1.1 Scientific Inquiry

Science is a path to gaining knowledge about the natural world. The study of science also includes the body of knowledge that has been collected through scientific inquiry . Scientists conduct scientific investigations by asking testable questions that can be systematically observed and careful evidenced collected. Then they use logical reasoning and some imagination to develop a testable idea, called a hypothesis , along with explanations to explain the idea. Finally, scientists design and conduct experiments based on their hypotheses.

Science seeks to understand the fundamental laws and principles that cause natural patterns and govern natural processes. It is more than just a body of knowledge; science is a way of thinking that provides a means to evaluate and create new knowledge without bias. At its best, science uses objective evidence over subjective evidence to reach sound and logical conclusions.

Truth in science is a difficult concept, and this is because science is falsifiable, which means an initial explanation (hypothesis) is testable and able to be proven false. A scientific theory can never completely be proven correct; it is only after exhaustive attempts to falsify competing for ideas and variations that the theory is assumed to be true. While it may seem like a weakness, the strength behind this is that all scientific ideas have stood up to scrutiny, which is not necessarily true for non-scientific ideas and procedures. In fact, it is the ability to prove current ideas wrong that is a driving force in science and has driven many scientific careers.

Early Scientific Thought

Western science began in ancient Greece, specifically Athens, and early democracies like Athens encouraged individuals to think more independently than the in past when kings ruled most civilizations. Foremost among these early philosopher/scientists was Aristotle, born in 384 B.C.E., who contributed to foundations of knowledge and science. Aristotle was a student of Plato and a tutor to Alexander the Great, who would conquer the Persian Empire as far as India, spreading Greek culture in the process. Aristotle used deductive reasoning, applying what he thought he knew to establish a new idea (if A, then B).

Deductive reasoning starts with generalized principles or established or assumed knowledge and extends them to new ideas or conclusions. If a deductive conclusion is derived from sound principles, then the conclusion has a high degree of certainty. This contrasts with inductive reasoning which begins from new observations and attempts to discern the underlying principles that explain the observations. Inductive reasoning relies on evidence to infer a conclusion and does not have the perceived certainty of deductive reasoning. Both are important in science. Scientists take existing principles and laws and see if these explain observations. Also, they make new observations and seek to determine the principles and laws that underlie them. Both emphasize the two most important aspects of science: observations and inferences .

Greek culture was absorbed by the Romans. The Romans controlled people and resources in their Empire by building an infrastructure of roads, bridges, and aqueducts. Their road network helped spread Greek culture and knowledge throughout the Empire. The fall of the Roman Empire ushered in the Medieval period in Europe in which scientific progress in Europe was largely overlooked. During Europe’s Medieval period, science flourished in the Middle East between 800 and 1450 CE as the Islamic civilization developed. Empirical experimentation grew during this time and was a key component of the scientific revolution that started in 17th century Europe. Empiricism emphasizes the value of evidence gained from experimentation and observations of the senses. Because of the respect, others hold for Aristotle’s wisdom and knowledge, his logical approach was accepted for centuries and formed an essential basis for understanding nature. The Aristotelian approach came under criticism by 17th-century scholars of the Renaissance.

As science progressed, certain aspects of science that could not be experimented and sensed awaited the development of new technologies, such as atoms, molecules, and the deep-time of geology. The Renaissance, following the Medieval period between the fourteenth and seventeenth centuries, was a great awakening of artistic and scientific thought and expression in Europe.

The foundational example of the modern scientific approach is the understanding of the solar system. The Greek astronomer Claudius Ptolemy, in the second century, using an Aristotelian approach and mathematics, observed the Sun, Moon, and stars moving across the sky and deductively reasoned that Earth must be at the center of the universe with the celestial bodies circling Earth. Ptolemy even had mathematical, astronomical calculations that supported his argument. The view of the cosmos with Earth at its center is called the geocentric model.

In contrast, early Renaissance scholars used new instruments such as the telescope to enhance astronomical observations and developed new mathematics to explain those observations. These scholars proposed a radically new understanding of the cosmos, one in which Earth and the other planets orbited around the centrally located Sun. This is known as the heliocentric model, and astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) was the first to offer a solid mathematical explanation for it around 1543.

1.2 Geographic Inquiry

Geography is the study of the physical and cultural environments of the earth. What makes geography different from other disciplines is its focus on spatial inquiry and analysis. Geographers also try to look for connections between things such as patterns, movement and migration, trends, and so forth. This process is called a geographic or spatial inquiry . To do this, geographers go through a geographic methodology that is quite similar to the scientific method, but again with a geographic or spatial emphasis. This method can be simplified as the geographic inquiry process .

Ask a geographic question . This means to ask questions about spatial relationships in the physical and cultural environment.
Acquire geographic resources . Identify data and information that is needed to answer a particular geographic or spatial question.
Explore geographic data . Turn the data into maps, tables, and graphs, and look for patterns and relationships.
Analyze geographic information . Determine the patterns and relationships concerning the geographic or spatial question.

“Knowing where something is, how its location influences its characteristics, and how its location influences relationships with other phenomena are the foundation of geographic thinking. This mode of investigation asks you to see the world and all that is in it in spatial terms. Like other research methods, it also asks you to explore, analyze, and act upon the things you find. It is also important to recognize that this is the same method used by professionals around the world working to address social, economic, political, environmental, and a wide-range of other scientific issues.” (ESRI)

1.3 History of Geography

Some of the first genuinely geographical studies occurred more than four thousand years ago. The primary purpose of these early investigations was to map features and places observed as explorers traveled to new lands. At this time, Chinese, Egyptian, and Phoenician civilizations were beginning to explore the places and spaces within and outside of their homelands. The earliest evidence of such explorations comes from the archaeological discovery of a Babylonian clay tablet map that dates back to 2300 BC.

The early Greeks were the first civilization to practice a form of geography that was more than just map-making or cartography. Greek philosophers and scientist were also interested in learning about spatial nature of human and physical features found on the Earth. One of the first Greek geographers was Herodotus (circa 484 – 425 BC). Herodotus wrote some volumes that described the human and physical geography of the various regions of the Persian Empire.

The ancient Greeks were also interested in the form, size, and geometry of the Earth. Aristotle (circa 384 – 322 BC) hypothesized and scientifically demonstrated that the Earth had a spherical shape. Evidence for this idea came from observations of lunar eclipses. Lunar eclipses occur when the Earth casts its circular shadow on to the moon’s surface. The first individual to accurately calculate the circumference of the Earth was the Greek geographer Eratosthenes (circa 276 – 194 BC). Eratosthenes calculated the equatorial circumference to be 40,233 kilometers using simple geometric relationships. This first calculation was unusually accurate. Measurements of the Earth using modern satellite technology have computed the circumference to be 40,072 kilometers.

Most of the Greek accomplishments in geography were passed on to the Romans. Roman military commanders and administrators used this information to guide the expansion of their Empire. The Romans also made several notable additions to geographical knowledge. Strabo (circa 64 BC – 20 AD) wrote a 17 volume series called “Geographia.” Strabo claimed to have traveled widely and recorded what he had seen and experienced from a geographical perspective. In his series of books, Strabo describes the cultural geographies of the various societies of people found from Britain to as far east as India and south to Ethiopia and as far north as Iceland. Strabo also suggested a definition of geography that is quite complementary to the way many human geographers define their discipline today. This definition suggests that geography aimed to “describe the known parts of the inhabited world… to write the assessment of the countries of the world [and] to treat the differences between countries.”

During the second century AD, Ptolemy (circa 100 – 178 AD) made some important contributions to geography. Ptolemy’s publication Geographike hyphegesis or “Guide to Geography” compiled and summarize much of the Greek and Roman geographic information accumulated at that time. Some of his other notable contributions include the creation of three different methods for projecting the Earth’s surface on a map, the calculation of coordinate locations for some eight thousand places on the Earth, and development of the concepts of geographical latitude and longitude.

Little academic progress in geography occurred after the Roman period. For the most part, the Middle Ages (5th to 13th centuries AD) were a time of intellectual stagnation. In Europe, the Vikings of Scandinavia were the only group of people carrying out active exploration of new lands. In the Middle East, Arab academics began translating the works of Greek and Roman geographers starting in the 8th century and began exploring southwestern Asia and Africa. Some of the essential intellectuals in Arab geography were Al-Idrisi, Ibn Battutah, and Ibn Khaldun. Al-Idrisi is best known for his skill at making maps and for his work of descriptive geography Kitab nuzhat al-mushtaq fi ikhtiraq al-afaq or “The Pleasure Excursion of One Who Is Eager to Traverse the Regions of the World.” Ibn Battutah and Ibn Khaldun are well known for writing about their extensive travels of North Africa and the Middle East.

During the Renaissance (1400 to 1600 AD) numerous journeys of geographical exploration were commissioned by a variety of nation-states in Europe. Most of these voyages were financed because of the potential commercial returns from resource exploitation. The voyages also provided an opportunity for scientific investigation and discovery. These voyages also added many significant contributions to geographic knowledge. Important explorers of this period include Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama, Ferdinand Magellan, Jacques Cartier, Sir Martin Frobisher, Sir Francis Drake, John and Sebastian Cabot, and John Davis. Also during the Renaissance, Martin Behaim created a spherical globe depicting the Earth in its true three-dimensional form in 1492. Behaim’s invention was a significant advance over two-dimensional maps because it created a more realistic depiction of the Earth’s shape and surface configuration.

In the 17th century, Bernhardus Varenius (1622-1650) published an important geographic reference titled Geographia generalis (General Geography: 1650). In this volume, Varenius used direct observations and primary measurements to present some new ideas concerning geographic knowledge. This work continued to be a standard geographic reference for about a 100 years. Varenius also suggested that the discipline of geography could be subdivided into three distinct branches. The first branch examines the form and dimensions of the Earth. The second sub-discipline deals with tides, climatic variations over time and space, and other variables that are influenced by the cyclical movements of the Sun and moon. Together these two branches form the early beginning of what we collectively now call physical geography. The last branch of geography examined distinct regions on the Earth using comparative cultural studies. Today, this area of knowledge is called cultural geography.

During the 18th century, the German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) proposed that human knowledge could be organized in three different ways. One way of organizing knowledge was to classify its facts according to the type of objects studied. Accordingly, zoology studies animals, botany examines plants, and geology involves the investigation of rocks. The second way one can study things is according to a temporal dimension. This field of knowledge is, of course, called history. The last method of organizing knowledge involves understanding facts relative to spatial relationships. This field of knowledge is commonly known as geography. Kant also divided geography into some sub-disciplines. He recognized the following six branches: Physical, mathematical, moral, political, commercial, and theological geography.

Geographic knowledge saw strong growth in Europe and the United States in the 1800s. This period also saw the emergence of a number of societies interested in geographic issues. In Germany, Alexander von Humboldt , Carl Ritter , and Fredrich Ratzel made substantial contributions to human and physical geography. Humboldt’s publication Kosmos (1844) examines the geology and physical geography of the Earth. This work is considered by many academics to be a milestone contribution to geographic scholarship. Late in the 19th Century, Ratzel theorized that the distribution and culture of the Earth’s various human populations were strongly influenced by the natural environment. The French geographer Paul Vidal de la Blanche opposed this revolutionary idea. Instead, he suggested that human beings were a dominant force shaping the form of the environment. The idea that humans were modifying the physical environment was also prevalent in the United States. In 1847, George Perkins Marsh gave an address to the Agricultural Society of Rutland County, Vermont. The subject of this speech was that human activity was having a destructive impact on the land, primarily through deforestation and land conversion. This speech also became the foundation for his book Man and Nature or The Earth as Modified by Human Action, first published in 1864. In this publication, Marsh warned of the ecological consequences of the continued development of the American frontier.

During the first 50 years of the 1900s, many academics in the field of geography extended the various ideas presented in the previous century to studies of small regions all over the world. Most of these studies used descriptive field methods to test research questions. Starting around 1950, geographic research experienced a shift in methodology. Geographers began adopting a more scientific approach that relied on quantitative techniques. The quantitative revolution was also associated with a change in the way in which geographers studied the Earth and its phenomena. Researchers now began investigating process rather than a mere description of the event of interest. Today, the quantitative approach is becoming even more prevalent due to advances in computer and software technologies.

In 1964, William Pattison published an article in the Journal of Geography (1964, 63: 211-216) that suggested that modern Geography was now composed of the following four academic traditions:

Spatial Tradition – the investigation of the phenomena of geography from a strictly spatial perspective.
Area Studies Tradition – the geographical study of an area on the Earth at either the local, regional, or global scale.
Human-Land Tradition – the geographical study of human interactions with the environment.
Earth Science Tradition – the study of natural phenomena from a spatial perspective. This tradition is best described as theoretical physical geography.

Today, the academic traditions described by Pattison are still dominant fields of geographical investigation. However, the frequency and magnitude of human-mediated environmental problems have been on a steady increase since the publication of this notion. These increases are the result of a growing human population and the consequent increase in the consumption of natural resources. As a result, an increasing number of researchers in geography are studying how humans modify the environment. A significant number of these projects also develop strategies to reduce the negative impact of human activities on nature. Some of the dominant themes in these studies include environmental degradation of the hydrosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere; resource use issues; natural hazards; environmental impact assessment; and the effect of urbanization and land-use change on natural environments.

Considering all of the statements presented concerning the history and development of geography, we are now ready to formulate a somewhat coherent definition. This definition suggests that geography, in its purest form, is the field of knowledge that is concerned with how phenomena are spatially organized. Physical geography attempts to determine why natural phenomena have particular spatial patterns and orientation. This online textbook will focus primarily on the Earth Science Tradition. Some of the information that is covered in this textbook also deals with the alterations of the environment because of human interaction. These pieces of information belong in the Human-Land Tradition of geography.

1.4 Elements of Geography

Geography is a discipline that integrates a wide variety of subject matter. Almost any area of human knowledge can be examined from a spatial perspective. Physical geography’s primary subdisciplines study the Earth’s atmosphere (meteorology and climatology), animal and plant life (biogeography), physical landscape (geomorphology), soils (pedology), and waters (hydrology). Some of the principal areas of study in human geography include human society and culture (social and cultural geography), behavior (behavioral geography), economics (economic geography), politics (political geography), and urban systems (urban geography).

Holistic synthesis connects knowledge from a variety of academic fields in both human and physical geography. For example, the study of the enhancement of the Earth’s greenhouse effect and the resulting global warming requires a multidisciplinary approach for complete understanding. The fields of climatology and meteorology are required to understand the physical effects of adding additional greenhouse gases to the atmosphere’s radiation balance. The field of economic geography provides information on how various forms of human economic activity contribute to the emission of greenhouse gases through fossil fuel burning and land-use change. Combining the knowledge of both of these academic areas gives us a more comprehensive understanding of why this environmental problem occurs.

The holistic nature of geography is both a strength and a weakness. Geography’s strength comes from its ability to connect functional interrelationships that are not generally noticed in narrowly defined fields of knowledge. The most apparent weakness associated with the geographical approach is related to the fact that holistic understanding is often too simple and misses essential details of cause and effect.

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, we discovered that an important component of scientific method was the testing of either through or forms of analysis. A hypothesis can be defined as a tentative assumption that is made for the purpose of empirical scientific testing. A hypothesis becomes a theory of science when repeated testing produces the same conclusion. . The null hypothesis is the assumption that will be maintained by the researcher unless the analysis of data provides significant evidence to disprove it. The null hypothesis is denoted symbolically as . For example, here is a formulated null hypothesis related to the investigation of precipitation patterns over adjacent rural and urban land-use types: : There is no difference in precipitation levels between urban and adjacent rural areas. ( ). Researchers should structure their tests so that all outcomes are anticipated before the tests and that results can be clearly interpreted. Some tests may require the formulation of multiple alternative hypotheses. However, interpretation is most clear cut when the hypothesis is set up with only one alternative outcome. For the example dealing with precipitation patterns over adjacent rural and urban land-use types, the alternative might be: : There is an increase in precipitation levels in urban areas relative to adjacent rural areas because of the heating differences of the two surface types (the urban area heats up more and has increased convective uplift). statistical tests the data must be collected randomly, data observations should be independent of each other, and the variables should be normally distributed. (see and for examples). Inferential statistics are available both for predictive and experimental hypothesis testing. This group of statistical procedures allow researchers to test assumptions about collected data based on the laws of probability. Tests are carried out by comparing calculated values of the test statistic to assigned critical values. . A non-directional (or two-sided) hypothesis would be used when both positive and negative differences are of equal importance in providing evidence with which to test the null hypothesis. We call this type of test .







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The Use of the Term “Hypothesis” in Geography

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Grade 12 Geography Hypothesis Examples based on South African Topics

Grade 12 Geography Hypothesis Examples based on South African Topics:

A hypothesis is a proposed explanation or assumption for a specific phenomenon, event, or observation that can be tested through scientific investigation. It is a key component of the scientific method, as it provides a basis for researchers to design experiments, collect data, and ultimately confirm or refute the hypothesis.

Relevant terminologies related to a hypothesis:

Null hypothesis (H0): A statement that suggests there is no significant relationship between the variables being studied or that the observed effect is due to chance alone. The null hypothesis is often tested against an alternative hypothesis.
Alternative hypothesis (H1 or Ha): A statement that contradicts the null hypothesis, asserting that there is a significant relationship between the variables or that the observed effect is not due to chance alone.
Dependent variable: The variable being studied or measured in an experiment, often considered the “outcome” or “response” variable. It is dependent on the independent variable(s).
Independent variable: The variable that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher in an experiment to study its effect on the dependent variable.
Control group: A group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment or manipulation of the independent variable. The control group serves as a baseline for comparison with the experimental group.
Experimental group: A group in an experiment that receives the treatment or manipulation of the independent variable.
Confounding variable: A variable that may influence the relationship between the independent and dependent variables, potentially leading to incorrect conclusions.
Internal validity: The degree to which the results of a study can be attributed to the manipulation of the independent variable rather than the influence of confounding variables.
External validity: The degree to which the results of a study can be generalized to other populations, settings, or conditions.
Statistical significance: A measure of the likelihood that the observed relationship between variables is due to chance alone. A statistically significant result indicates that there is strong evidence to reject the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative hypothesis.
P-value: A probability value used to determine the statistical significance of a result. A smaller p-value (typically less than 0.05) indicates stronger evidence against the null hypothesis.

Here are possible hypothesis examples based on South African geography topics:

Hypothesis: The severity and frequency of droughts in South Africa will increase due to climate change.
This hypothesis could be investigated by analyzing historical drought data and comparing it to climate projections for the region. Researchers could also look at the impacts of droughts on agriculture, water availability, and socio-economic factors in different parts of the country.
Hypothesis: The development of renewable energy infrastructure in South Africa will reduce the country’s dependence on fossil fuels and lead to a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions.
This hypothesis could be investigated by examining trends in energy production and consumption, as well as government policies and incentives related to renewable energy. Researchers could also analyze the environmental and economic impacts of transitioning to renewable energy sources in different parts of the country.
Hypothesis: Urbanization in South Africa is contributing to increased air pollution levels and negative health impacts.
This hypothesis could be investigated by measuring air pollution levels in different urban areas and comparing them to national and international standards. Researchers could also examine the health impacts of air pollution on different demographic groups and assess the effectiveness of existing policies and interventions aimed at reducing air pollution.
Hypothesis: Mining activities in South Africa are causing significant environmental degradation and negative impacts on local communities.
This hypothesis could be investigated by analyzing the environmental impacts of different mining practices, such as open pit mining and deep level mining, and assessing the effectiveness of regulatory frameworks in mitigating these impacts. Researchers could also investigate the social and economic impacts of mining on local communities, including displacement, loss of livelihoods, and health impacts.
Hypothesis: Climate change is exacerbating water scarcity in South Africa, particularly in regions with high levels of population growth and agricultural activity.
This hypothesis could be investigated by analyzing historical rainfall data and assessing the impacts of changing rainfall patterns on water availability in different regions. Researchers could also examine the effectiveness of water management strategies, such as water conservation measures and investments in infrastructure, in mitigating the impacts of water scarcity on agriculture, industry, and domestic use.
Hypothesis: Tourism development in South Africa is leading to environmental degradation and cultural commodification in some areas.
This hypothesis could be investigated by analyzing the impacts of tourism development on local ecosystems, including wildlife and biodiversity, and assessing the effectiveness of existing policies and regulations in protecting these areas. Researchers could also investigate the socio-cultural impacts of tourism on local communities, including changes in traditional ways of life and the commodification of cultural practices.
Hypothesis: The use of non-renewable energy sources in South Africa is contributing to climate change and global warming.
This hypothesis could be investigated by analyzing energy production and consumption trends in the country and comparing them to national and international targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Researchers could also examine the environmental impacts of different energy sources, such as coal and natural gas, and assess the feasibility and effectiveness of transitioning to renewable energy sources.
Hypothesis: Land use change in South Africa is leading to deforestation and biodiversity loss.
This hypothesis could be investigated by analyzing the drivers of land use change, including agricultural expansion and urbanization, and assessing their impacts on forest cover and biodiversity. Researchers could also investigate the effectiveness of existing policies and regulations aimed at protecting forests and conserving biodiversity, and assess the potential for sustainable land use practices.
Hypothesis: Coastal erosion in South Africa is increasing due to sea level rise and human activities.
This hypothesis could be investigated by analyzing historical data on coastal erosion rates and assessing the impacts of sea level rise and human activities, such as coastal development and mining, on coastal ecosystems. Researchers could also investigate the effectiveness of existing coastal management strategies, including coastal protection measures and land use planning, in mitigating the impacts of coastal erosion.

These are just a few examples of possible geography hypotheses related to South Africa. Actual research would require detailed planning, data collection, and analysis.

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Aims & Hypothesis ( CIE IGCSE Geography )

Revision note.

Geography Lead

Aims & Hypothesis

Aims/hypothesis.

This is linked to the content in the specification and then related to a place-specific context
All fieldwork begins with the aims and hypothesis
An investigation into changes in beach profiles along Mappleton Beach
An investigation into the impact of building a wind farm in rural Lincolnshire
River discharge increases with distance from the source of the River Dove
Environmental quality increases with distance from the new housing estate in Swanland, East Yorkshire
Aims and hypothesis may be based on what is already known about the topic. For example, Bradshaw's model in rivers

When answering Hypotheses questions that ask whether you agree or not, always give your opinion at the start of your answer before any supporting evidence. This will usually be Yes, No or Partially True /True to some extent.

Do not just copy out the Hypothesis if you agree with it. It is important to make a decision and state it as well as provide the evidence for your choice. Be clear in your decision –expressions such as ‘might be true’, ‘could be false’, ‘true and false’ are too vague.

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Population Dynamics
Population Structure
Population Density & Distribution
Settlements & Service Provision
Urban Settlements
Urbanisation
Earthquakes & Volcanoes

Author: Bridgette

After graduating with a degree in Geography, Bridgette completed a PGCE over 25 years ago. She later gained an MA Learning, Technology and Education from the University of Nottingham focussing on online learning. At a time when the study of geography has never been more important, Bridgette is passionate about creating content which supports students in achieving their potential in geography and builds their confidence.

political & geographical thought geogrraphy pyqs study material part 6

THEORIES AND MODELS IN GEOGRAPHY: Geographical Thought & Political Geography

Part 6 Geographical Thought & Political Geography Theories & Models in Geography

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Geographical Thought & Political Geography MODELS AND THEORIES FOR UGC NET EXAM, THEORIES AND MODELS IN GEOGRAPHY NOTES, MODEL IN GEOGRAPHY STUDY MATERIAL, THEORIES AND MODELS PYQS,

Theories and Models in Geography

Part 1- Geomorphology – Uniformitarianism, Isostasy, Continental Drift Theory, Cavern Formation Theory

Part 2- Climatology – Rainfall Formation Theories, Climatic Classification of Koeppen’s & Thronthwaite’s

Part 2- Oceanography – Theories of Coral Formation, Theories of Origin of Tides

Part 3- Agricultural Geography- Von Thunen’s Model of Land Use, Whittlesey Classification

Part 3- Economic Geography- Industrial Location Theory by Alfred Weber

Part 3- Regional Planning & Development – Economic Growth Model of Rostow, Gunnar Myrdal, O Hirschman, John Friedman, Francois Perroux, Planning Process of MacKaye, Planning Regions of V. Nath, Bhat & Rao, Sen Gupta & Chandrasekhara

Part 4- Population Geography – Population Resource Regions – Ackerman, Theories of Population Growth- Malthusian Theory of Population, Demographic Transition Theory, Theory of Migration- Ravenstein’s Laws, Zelinsky, Push & Pull Theory

Part 5- Settlement and Urban Geography- CENTRAL PLACE THEORY, Economic Location Theory of August Losch, Theories of Urban Urban Morphology- E.W. Burgess, Homer Hoyt, C.D Harris & E.L Ullman

Part 6- Political Geography- Heartland Theory, Rimland Theory

Part 6- Geographical Thought- Philosophical Approaches -Positivism, Pragmatism, Idealism, Realism, New or Critical Realism, Phenomenology, Radicalism, Behaviouralism, Welfare Approach

Political Geography

Heartland Theory by Halford Gohn Mackinder (1904)

This theory based on Land Power (Continental Power)

His theory is a spatial analysis of the geopolitics in terms of location, accessibility & natural resource base.

Mackinder divided world into 3 geo-strategic regions

The heartland
Inner crescent
Outer Crescent
Heartland/Pivot Area –
It is surrounded by mountains on three sides i.e. Urals in West, Central Asian Highlands in South & East Siberian Highlands in east, and by ice-bound Arctic on the north
It consisted of the whole Siberia & centrals part of Asia (Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Turkmenistan)
It is a natural fortress, from three sides and region of enormous resources.
The most inaccessible part of the world.
This is the area of low population and difficult accessibility

Inner/Marginal Crescent –
This Inner/Marginal crescent considered as whole of Eurasia outside the heartland.
It has land and sea mobility and accessibility.
It consisted of the Greek & Roman Civilization, Nile Civilization, Mesopotamia Civilization, Indus valley Civilization, East Asian Civilization, South East Asian Civilization.
Together Heartland & Inner crescent is described as world island
World Island – The World-Island, comprising the interlinked continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa (Afro-Eurasia). This was the largest, most populous, and richest of all possible land combinations.
Outer/Insular Crescent –
It consisted of North America, South America, Africa (South of Sahara), Great Britain, Australia, New Zealand & Japan. These could be accessible through sea.

“Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland;

who rules the Heartland commands the World-Island;

who rules the World-Island commands the world.”

— Mackinder, Democratic Ideals and Reality

In 1919 he included the whole of Africa in ‘World Island’

In 1943 describe about Midland Basin – North Atlantic, Eastern US & Western Europe

Book & Writings

Geographical Pivot of History (1904)

The democratic ideals and reality (In 1919, Mackinder renamed his ‘Pivot Area’ as Heartland in famous book)

The Round World and the Winning of the Peace

Mackinder oversimplified history in a deterministic fashion as a struggle between land and sea power, which is far from truth. History is influenced by physical, socio – economic and cultural factors not just geographical factors.
He overlooked the fact that Heartland was a region of permanent difficulties because of interior location and owing to the extremes of climate.
Heartland is not resourceful as it is made to be and greater part of Heartland is a wasteland and incapable of supporting a large population.
He ignored the technological advancements.
Ignored the locational climatic factors.
He Ignored the modern advancements in Military and defense like missiles etc.
The real world was not flat but spherical, and he used Mercator projection map, which create false picture unlimited expanse of arctic ice separating North America from Eurasia.

Rimland Theory by Spykman (1942)

Propounded in 1942
This theory was Published in his book ‘The Geography of Peace’- 1944
This theory emphasis on maritime mobility or on Sea Power
“Who controls the Rimland rules Eurasia; who rules Eurasia controls the destinies of the world”. Nicholas John Spykman

Geographical Thought

Philosophical Approaches

Positivism – August Comte
Idealism – Harris & Guelke
Realism – Gibson
New or Critical Realism – T.P Nunn
Phenomenology – Relph
Radicalism – R. Peet
Behaviouralism – Kirk & Wolpert
Welfare Approach- David Smith

Positivism –

Positivism precisely described as a Philosophical movement that emphasized on science and scientific method as the only source of knowledge and which stood in sharp contrast to religion and metaphysics.
Its main purpose is to distinguish science from religion and metaphysics.
We also can say that Positivism is a philosophical thought, where assertions are validated by the use of logic, science, maths, facts, etc.
Origin: The origin of Positivism go back to 19th Century French Social Philosopher August Comte in 1820s.

According to Comte – Social development took place in three stages

Theological
Metaphysical

Idealism –

This is a view that reality is mental or mind-depended.
Guelke is the most celebrated advocate of idealism in geography
This idealistic Approach to Humanistic geography was advocated by Harris and Guelke (1971).
It regards reality as residing in or constituted by the mind.
Idealism is a humanstic philosophy based upon the belief that the world is constructed through the human mind instead of matter.

Realism –

Realism is the view that reality exist in depended of the mind, it is not mind-in depended.
Gibson suggests realism as a viable alternative to idealism.
The basic philosophy of realism is that facts for themselves and explanation is logical and inductive (Empirical).
It is very close to the objective philosophy of positivism but has different methodology of explanation.
The concept of “New or Critical Realism” propounded by T.P Nunn.

Phenomenology-

Phenomenology was designed to disclose the world as it shows itself before scientific inquiry, as that which is pre-given and presupposed by the sciences.
Phenomenology is an important source. People never observe the world in an objective way.
We observe how the world appears to us as a phenomenon, so the world is always observed subjectively.
The appearance of the world depends on our intentions and ons how it appears. How it appears affects what we want to do.
The first to introduce the phenomenology approach in Human Geography was Relph (1970)

Radicalism –

This approach advocated by R.Peet.
Peet presented a separate book titled “Radical Geography” that is why many geographers call him “Father of Radical Geography”
He developed a comprehensive concept of radicalism in geography
The emergence of radical geography principally took place in the USA
The Radical Approach in geography came in 1970s as a reaction to quantitive revolution and positivism.
Radical Approach in Geography concentrated mainly the issues of greater social relevance like inequality, sexism, racism, crime, discrimination against blacks and non-whites, juvenile exploitation etc.

Behaviouralism –

The behavioral approach in geography was introduced in 1960s. It was developed as the opposition of quantitative and positivism approaches. As positivism and Quantitative approaches believed that:

Space is isotropic surface
Men is an economic rational person
Use of statistical technique
And non-relevance of human values, beliefs, culture in human decision making.

Kirk- propounded first behavioral models in 1951. He asserted that in space and time, the same information would have different meaning for people of different socio – economic, ethnic, cultural backgrounds living in a similar geographical environment.

Wolpert- showed that farmers are not Economic Men or farmers were not optimizers but Simon’s term satisfies.

The Basic Philosophy of Behaviourlism Approach :

The behavioural geographer recognizes that man shapes as well as responds to his environment & man and environment dynamically interrelated.

Space (Environment) have a dual character-

(i) Objective Environment –

The world of actuality, which can be gauged by some direct means (Senses)

(ii) Behavioural Environment –

The world of mind (Mental Map) – Which can be studied only by indirect means.

(Mental Map Concept Developed by P. Gould, R. White and Lynch also associated with mental map concept)

The objectives of behavioural approach were:

To develop models for a human phenomenon which would provide an alternative to the spatial location theories developed under the influence of positivism.
To define the cognitive (subjective) environment that determines the decision-making process of humans;
To come up with psychological and social theories of human decision-making and behaviour in a spatial framework;
To search for methods other than those popular during the quantitative revolution that could uncover the latent structure in data and decision-making;
To generate primary data about human behaviour and not to rely heavily on the

published data; and

To adopt an interdisciplinary approach for theory-building and problem-solving

Welfare Approach

David Smith had adopted the Welfare approach while discussing the problems and prospects of human geography.
The welfare approach deals with the issues related to inequality and injustice.
In 1970s there was a major redirection of Human Geography towards social problems like poverty, Hungary, crime, racial discrimination, access to health, education etc.
The basic emphasis of welfare geography is on who gets what, where & how.

Who – Population

What – Facilities

Where – Different Areas/Places.

How – Reflects the process by which the observed differences arise.

DOWNLOAD PDF HERE (Geographical Thought & Political Geography )

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25 Cause and effect: Geography

Hypothesis: Geography

By Keith Kelly

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Keith Kelly looks at examples of the language of hypothesis, prediction and conditions from the area of geography, covering common structures and lexical phrases.

Common structures

Predicting with a greater degree of certainty.

If … happens, … will: If the population continues to increase at this pace, it will double in less than 20 years.

As … happens, (then) … will/may happen: As a country’s economy develops, its population will grow very slowly at first, but will then grow rapidly later and may finally stop growing.

When … happens, (then) … will happen: When the magma cools, it will form igneous rock within the crust.

Because … happens, (then) … will happen: Because the resources are used at a faster rate than they are replaced, they will be run down to levels at which they become of little use to people.

Predicting with a lesser degree of certainty

If … happens, … may / might / can / could happen (possibility):

If a cave erodes all the way through a headland, an arch may form.
If many vehicles pass over the sand dunes throughout the year, this can greatly reduce vegetation cover.
If greenhouse gases continue to accumulate at their present rate, the earth’s temperature could rise by around 3ºC in the 21 st century. Health problems could increase in temperate latitudes as tropical diseases might spread to these regions due to higher summer temperatures.

If … happened, … would happen (probability): If cultural regions were based only on language, they would be relatively easy to define.

Assuming … happened, … would happen (probability): Assuming working hours were reduced, the cost of manufacturing would increase.

If … had happened, … would have happened (speculation about the past): If a similar mudflow had hit a town in a rich country, fewer homes would have been destroyed.

Predicting using a negative construction

Unless … happens, … will not happen / … will not happen, unless … happens: Unless more oil is found, or energy use is controlled, the world’s oil supply will not last beyond the end of the 21st century. The population of the island will not be evacuated unless there is a real perceived threat from the active volcano.

If / When … does not happen, … will happen / … will not happen: If the rain does not fall, it will cause drought, crop failure and famine. When the tide comes in beyond the markers, the fishermen will not be able to lay their nets.

Common lexical phrases

Whether … happens depends on … / … happening requires … (entails, calls for, demands, needs): Whether river erosion happens quickly or slowly depends on hardness of rock, volume of water and river speed. Maximising a crop harvest demands a lot of forward planning and preparation and calls for a certain amount of pure luck.

A requirement (condition / prerequisite / necessity) for … to happen is … / One of the conditions for … is …: Conditions for effective distribution ( to happen ) include access to wide, well-surfaced routes, and airports or ports. One of the conditions for effective distribution is access to wide, well-surfaced routes, and airports or ports.

For … to happen, … is essential (necessary/crucial/vital): For rice to grow effectively, waterlogged conditions are essential .

Geography & Places

Conclusions and findings: Science

Generalizations: geography, explanations: science, change: science, change: geography, roots: science, roots: geography, compounds: science, process: science, compounds: geography, process: geography, attributing: science, attributing: geography, line graphs: science, line graphs: geography, hypothesis: science, measuring: science, measuring: geography, classification: geography, classification: science, comparisons: science, comparisons: geography, cause and effect: geography, related articles.

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Keith Kelly looks at examples of language used in making conclusions and findings from the area of science, categorized by nouns, verbs, word groups and prepositions.

Conclusions and findings: Geography

Keith Kelly looks at examples of language used in making conclusions and findings from the area of geography, categorized by nouns, verbs, word groups and prepositions.

Generalizations: Science

Keith Kelly looks at examples of language used in making generalizations from the area of science; these can be split into three broad groups: quantity, frequency and certainty.

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5.5 Introduction to Hypothesis Tests

Dalmation puppy near man sitting on the floor.

One job of a statistician is to make statistical inferences about populations based on samples taken from the population. Confidence intervals are one way to estimate a population parameter.

Another way to make a statistical inference is to make a decision about a parameter. For instance, a car dealership advertises that its new small truck gets 35 miles per gallon on average. A tutoring service claims that its method of tutoring helps 90% of its students get an A or a B. A company says that female managers in their company earn an average of $60,000 per year. A statistician may want to make a decision about or evaluate these claims. A hypothesis test can be used to do this.

A hypothesis test involves collecting data from a sample and evaluating the data. Then the statistician makes a decision as to whether or not there is sufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis based upon analyses of the data.

In this section, you will conduct hypothesis tests on single means when the population standard deviation is known.

Hypothesis testing consists of two contradictory hypotheses or statements, a decision based on the data, and a conclusion. To perform a hypothesis test, a statistician will perform some variation of these steps:

Define hypotheses.
Collect and/or use the sample data to determine the correct distribution to use.
Calculate test statistic.
Make a decision.
Write a conclusion.

Defining your hypotheses

The actual test begins by considering two hypotheses: the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis. These hypotheses contain opposing viewpoints.

The null hypothesis ( H 0 ) is often a statement of the accepted historical value or norm. This is your starting point that you must assume from the beginning in order to show an effect exists.

The alternative hypothesis ( H a ) is a claim about the population that is contradictory to H 0 and what we conclude when we reject H 0 .

Since the null and alternative hypotheses are contradictory, you must examine evidence to decide if you have enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis or not. The evidence is in the form of sample data.

After you have determined which hypothesis the sample supports, you make a decision . There are two options for a decision. They are “reject H 0 ” if the sample information favors the alternative hypothesis or “do not reject H 0 ” or “decline to reject H 0 ” if the sample information is insufficient to reject the null hypothesis.

The following table shows mathematical symbols used in H 0 and H a :

Figure 5.12: Null and alternative hypotheses

equal (=)	not equal (≠) greater than (>) less than (<)
equal (=)	less than (<)
equal (=)	more than (>)

NOTE: H 0 always has a symbol with an equal in it. H a never has a symbol with an equal in it. The choice of symbol in the alternative hypothesis depends on the wording of the hypothesis test. Despite this, many researchers may use =, ≤, or ≥ in the null hypothesis. This practice is acceptable because our only decision is to reject or not reject the null hypothesis.

We want to test whether the mean GPA of students in American colleges is 2.0 (out of 4.0). The null hypothesis is: H 0 : μ = 2.0. What is the alternative hypothesis?

A medical trial is conducted to test whether or not a new medicine reduces cholesterol by 25%. State the null and alternative hypotheses.

Using the Sample to Test the Null Hypothesis

Once you have defined your hypotheses, the next step in the process is to collect sample data. In a classroom context, the data or summary statistics will usually be given to you.

Then you will have to determine the correct distribution to perform the hypothesis test, given the assumptions you are able to make about the situation. Right now, we are demonstrating these ideas in a test for a mean when the population standard deviation is known using the z distribution. We will see other scenarios in the future.

Calculating a Test Statistic

Next you will start evaluating the data. This begins with calculating your test statistic , which is a measure of the distance between what you observed and what you are assuming to be true. In this context, your test statistic, z ο , quantifies the number of standard deviations between the sample mean, x, and the population mean, µ . Calculating the test statistic is analogous to the previously discussed process of standardizing observations with z -scores:

$z=\frac{\overline{x}-{\mu }_{o}}{\left(\frac{\sigma }{\sqrt{n}}\right)}$

where µ o is the value assumed to be true in the null hypothesis.

Making a Decision

Once you have your test statistic, there are two methods to use it to make your decision:

Critical value method (discussed further in later chapters)
p -value method (our current focus)

p -Value Method

To find a p -value , we use the test statistic to calculate the actual probability of getting the test result. Formally, the p -value is the probability that, if the null hypothesis is true, the results from another randomly selected sample will be as extreme or more extreme as the results obtained from the given sample.

A large p -value calculated from the data indicates that we should not reject the null hypothesis. The smaller the p -value, the more unlikely the outcome and the stronger the evidence is against the null hypothesis. We would reject the null hypothesis if the evidence is strongly against it.

Draw a graph that shows the p -value. The hypothesis test is easier to perform if you use a graph because you see the problem more clearly.

Suppose a baker claims that his bread height is more than 15 cm on average. Several of his customers do not believe him. To persuade his customers that he is right, the baker decides to do a hypothesis test. He bakes ten loaves of bread. The mean height of the sample loaves is 17 cm. The baker knows from baking hundreds of loaves of bread that the standard deviation for the height is 0.5 cm and the distribution of heights is normal.

The null hypothesis could be H 0 : μ ≤ 15.

The alternate hypothesis is H a : μ > 15.

The words “is more than” calls for the use of the > symbol, so “ μ > 15″ goes into the alternate hypothesis. The null hypothesis must contradict the alternate hypothesis.

$\frac{\sigma }{\sqrt{n}}$

Suppose the null hypothesis is true (the mean height of the loaves is no more than 15 cm). Then, is the mean height (17 cm) calculated from the sample unexpectedly large? The hypothesis test works by asking how unlikely the sample mean would be if the null hypothesis were true. The graph shows how far out the sample mean is on the normal curve. The p -value is the probability that, if we were to take other samples, any other sample mean would fall at least as far out as 17 cm.

This means that the p -value is the probability that a sample mean is the same or greater than 17 cm when the population mean is, in fact, 15 cm. We can calculate this probability using the normal distribution for means.

Normal distribution curve on average bread heights with values 15, as the population mean, and 17, as the point to determine the p-value, on the x-axis.

A p -value of approximately zero tells us that it is highly unlikely that a loaf of bread rises no more than 15 cm on average. That is, almost 0% of all loaves of bread would be at least as high as 17 cm purely by CHANCE had the population mean height really been 15 cm. Because the outcome of 17 cm is so unlikely (meaning it is happening NOT by chance alone), we conclude that the evidence is strongly against the null hypothesis that the mean height would be at most 15 cm. There is sufficient evidence that the true mean height for the population of the baker’s loaves of bread is greater than 15 cm.

A normal distribution has a standard deviation of one. We want to verify a claim that the mean is greater than 12. A sample of 36 is taken with a sample mean of 12.5.

Find the p -value.

Decision and Conclusion

A systematic way to decide whether to reject or not reject the null hypothesis is to compare the p -value and a preset or preconceived α (also called a significance level ). A preset α is the probability of a type I error (rejecting the null hypothesis when the null hypothesis is true). It may or may not be given to you at the beginning of the problem. If there is no given preconceived α , then use α = 0.05.

When you make a decision to reject or not reject H 0 , do as follows:

If α > p -value, reject H 0 . The results of the sample data are statistically significant . You can say there is sufficient evidence to conclude that H 0 is an incorrect belief and that the alternative hypothesis, H a , may be correct.
If α ≤ p -value, fail to reject H 0 . The results of the sample data are not significant. There is not sufficient evidence to conclude that the alternative hypothesis, H a , may be correct.

After you make your decision, write a thoughtful conclusion in the context of the scenario incorporating the hypotheses.

NOTE: When you “do not reject H 0 ,” it does not mean that you should believe that H 0 is true. It simply means that the sample data have failed to provide sufficient evidence to cast serious doubt about the truthfulness of H o .

When using the p -value to evaluate a hypothesis test, the following rhymes can come in handy:

If the p -value is low, the null must go.

If the p -value is high, the null must fly.

This memory aid relates a p -value less than the established alpha (“the p -value is low”) as rejecting the null hypothesis and, likewise, relates a p -value higher than the established alpha (“the p -value is high”) as not rejecting the null hypothesis.

Fill in the blanks:

Reject the null hypothesis when .
The results of the sample data .
Do not reject the null when hypothesis when .

It’s a Boy Genetics Labs claim their procedures improve the chances of a boy being born. The results for a test of a single population proportion are as follows:

H 0 : p = 0.50, H a : p > 0.50
p -value = 0.025

Interpret the results and state a conclusion in simple, non-technical terms.

Click here for more multimedia resources, including podcasts, videos, lecture notes, and worked examples.

Figure References

Figure 5.11: Alora Griffiths (2019). dalmatian puppy near man in blue shorts kneeling. Unsplash license. https://unsplash.com/photos/7aRQZtLsvqw

Figure 5.13: Kindred Grey (2020). Bread height probability. CC BY-SA 4.0.

A decision-making procedure for determining whether sample evidence supports a hypothesis

The claim that is assumed to be true and is tested in a hypothesis test

A working hypothesis that is contradictory to the null hypothesis

A measure of the difference between observations and the hypothesized (or claimed) value

The probability that an event will occur, assuming the null hypothesis is true

Probability that a true null hypothesis will be rejected, also known as type I error and denoted by α

Finding sufficient evidence that the observed effect is not just due to variability, often from rejecting the null hypothesis

Significant Statistics Copyright © 2024 by John Morgan Russell, OpenStaxCollege, OpenIntro is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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1.2.4: Geography and the Scientific Method
The scientific method consists of systematic observation, formulation, testing and revision of hypotheses. If a hypothesis withstands the scrutiny of repeated experimentation and review it may be elevated to a theory. Theories may undergo revision as new data and research methods are improved. Figure 1.2.4.1 1.2.4. 1: The Scientific Method.
Hypotheses: Types, Levels and Functions
Levels of Hypothesis 3. Functions 4. Testing. There are several different kinds of hypotheses used in social and/or geographical analysis, studies and research. However, the primary types of hypotheses are: (1) Research Hypotheses, (2) Null Hypotheses, (3) Scientific Hypotheses, and. (4) Statistical Hypotheses.
PDF Models and Theories
Models and TheoriesOne of the main things geographer do is try to identify trends and patterns. ver space and time. Often they will draw from the theories of sociologists, economists, historians, archeologists, political scientists, physicians and trained geographers to develop. odels and theories. These models and theories try to make ...
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Stating a hypothesis is becoming a common procedure in geographic writing, but the meaning and function of the term "hypothesis" have a wide array of interpretations. Some geographers use the term to pose fairly specific, directional relationships between phenomena, others use it to state more general relationships, and still others equate it ...
Theory and Explanation in Geography
THEORY AND EXPLANATION IN GEOGRAPHY "With this book Henry Yeung puts Geography back into the driver's seat of new theory development. Foregrounding mid-range theories and mechanism-based explanations, he offers a pragmatic approach that has the capacity to shape the wider social sciences for years to come. The timing of this intervention is pitch-perfect, as scholars search for ways to ...
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Geography, the study of the diverse environments, places, and spaces of Earth's surface and their interactions. The modern academic discipline is rooted in ancient practice, concerned with the characteristics of places, in particular their natural environments and peoples, as well as the relations between the two.
Geography
Geography (from Ancient Greek γεωγραφία geōgraphía; combining gê 'Earth' and gráphō 'write') is the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth. [1] Geography is an all-encompassing discipline that seeks an understanding of Earth and its human and natural complexities—not merely where objects are, but also how they have changed and come to be.
Full article: General theories and principles in geography and
Geography is a discipline with a diversity of subfields, including cartography and GIScience as well as human, physical and nature-and-society geography. ... Data has become more prevalent but our ability to use these data for either theory building or addressing real-world problems have not expanded. In fact, an analysis of scientific ...
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Approaching Nordic human geography as an evolving community of practice with strong historical-geographical legacies, this chapter introduces the two overarching themes of the book. On the one hand, we foreground how geography has been, and is, theorised in Nordic human geography, particularly (but not exclusively) as socio-spatial theory.
History and philosophy of geography I: The slow, the turbulent, and the
The history and theory of geography. Progress in Human Geography 14: 547-559. Crossref. Web of Science. Google Scholar. Smith N (1992) History and philosophy of geography: Real wars, theory wars. Progress in Human Geography 16: 257-271. Crossref. Web of Science. Google Scholar. Stock P (2016) Histories of geography. In: Hamilton P (ed.)
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facts under a conceptual scheme (hypothesis), retroduction bridges the gulf between nature and mind. Geomorphological indices, such as landforms and sediments, are signs for which causative processes are inferred retroductively. Though superficially similar to lucky , 'guessing', retroductive inference succeeds in generating fruitful hypotheses ...
1 Chapter 1 Introduction to Geography
Then they use logical reasoning and some imagination to develop a testable idea, called a hypothesis, along with explanations to explain the idea. Finally, scientists design and conduct experiments based on their hypotheses. ... Geography is the study of the physical and cultural environments of the earth. What makes geography different from ...
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A hypothesis can be defined as a tentative assumption that is made for the purpose of empirical scientific testing. A hypothesis becomes a theory of science when repeated testing produces the same conclusion. In most cases, hypothesis testing involves the following structured sequence of steps. The first step is the formulation of a null ...
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ABSTRACT Stating a hypothesis is becoming a common procedure in geographic writing, but the meaning and function of the term "hypothesis" have a wide array of interpretations. Some geographers ...
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The emphasis given by geographers and geography educationists to each of the elements of this trinity has shifted over time, as the discipline of geography has responded to changes in contemporary thought, theory, research findings and—more prosaically—the economy, politics and society. But the core concepts remain.
The Use of The Term "Hypothesis" in Geography∗
THE USE OF THE TERM "HYPOTHESIS" IN GEOGRAPHY Footnote ... Stating a hypothesis is becoming a common procedure in geographic writing, but the meaning and function of the term "hypothesis" have a wide array of interpretations. Some geographers use the term to pose fairly specific, directional relationships between phenomena, others use ...
PDF 1a
The null hypothesis therefore serves as a means of allowing geographers to draw conclusions when data, by its nature,cannot provide absolute truths. For example, geographical theory suggests that the bedload of a river should decrease in size with distance from the source of the river. Therefore, a sensible positive or alternative hypothesis
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Grade 12 Geography Hypothesis Examples based on South African Topics: A hypothesis is a proposed explanation or assumption for a specific phenomenon, event, or observation that can be tested through scientific investigation. It is a key component of the scientific method, as it provides a basis for researchers to design experiments, collect ...
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Geographical Theory. In subject area: Earth and Planetary Sciences. A Geographical Theory is defined as an explanation for the spatial distribution of poverty, focusing on the influence of physical landscape in causing poverty outcomes. It bifurcates into deterministic perspectives, which attribute poverty to physical characteristics, and ...
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The crux of the geography hypothesis is the positive relationship between access to natural resources and economic performance. The availability of certain environmental components is considered a prerequisite for economic development, whereas the lack of them is claimed to hinder or even preclude progress.
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Aims/Hypothesis. Fieldwork is based around an enquiry into a 'real life' issue. This is linked to the content in the specification and then related to a place-specific context. All fieldwork begins with the aims and hypothesis. The aim explains what the enquiry is attempting to achieve. An investigation into changes in beach profiles along ...
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Theories and Models in Geography. Part 1- Geomorphology - Uniformitarianism, Isostasy, Continental Drift Theory, Cavern Formation Theory. Part 2- Climatology - Rainfall Formation Theories, Climatic Classification of Koeppen's & Thronthwaite's. Part 2- Oceanography - Theories of Coral Formation, Theories of Origin of Tides.
Hypothesis: Geography
Predicting with a greater degree of certainty. If the population continues to increase at this pace, it will double in less than 20 years. As a country's economy develops, its population will grow very slowly at first, but will then grow rapidly later and may finally stop growing. When the magma cools, it will form igneous rock within the crust.
5.5 Introduction to Hypothesis Tests
The null hypothesis must contradict the alternate hypothesis. Since σ is known (σ = 0.5 cm), the distribution for the population is known to be normal with mean μ = 15 and standard deviation = = 0.16. Suppose the null hypothesis is true (the mean height of the loaves is no more than 15 cm).

Geography Notes

Types of Hypotheses :

Levels of Hypothesis :

Functions of Hypotheses :

Testing Hypotheses :

Related Articles:

Privacy Overview

Historical development of geography

1 Chapter 1 Introduction to Geography

1.1 Scientific Inquiry

Early Scientific Thought

1.2 Geographic Inquiry

1.3 History of Geography

1.4 Elements of Geography

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Hypothesis: Geography

Common structures

Predicting with a lesser degree of certainty

Predicting using a negative construction

Common lexical phrases

Conclusions and findings: Science

I’m constantly told to worry about my child’s screen time – but I’m more concerned about my own

Across Turkey by train: riding the Mesopotamia Express

Interactive Flashcards: Let’s Go Shopping!

No comments yet

Conclusions and findings: Geography

Generalizations: Science

Join onestopenglish today

5.5 Introduction to Hypothesis Tests

Defining your hypotheses

Using the Sample to Test the Null Hypothesis

Calculating a Test Statistic

Making a Decision

p -Value Method

Decision and Conclusion

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