essay on the rock cycle

ENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRY

The rock cycle.

The rock cycle is a series of processes that create and transform the types of rocks in Earth’s crust.

Chemistry, Earth Science, Geology

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There are three main types of rocks: sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic. Each of these rocks are formed by physical changes—such as melting , cooling , eroding, compacting , or deforming —that are part of the rock cycle . Sedimentary Rocks Sedimentary rocks are formed from pieces of other existing rock or organic material. There are three different types of sedimentary rocks: clastic , organic (biological), and chemical . Clastic sedimentary rocks, like sandstone, form from clasts, or pieces of other rock. Organic sedimentary rocks, like coal, form from hard, biological materials like plants, shells, and bones that are compressed into rock. The formation of clastic and organic rocks begins with the weathering , or breaking down, of the exposed rock into small fragments. Through the process of erosion , these fragments are removed from their source and transported by wind, water, ice, or biological activity to a new location. Once the sediment settles somewhere, and enough of it collects, the lowest layers become compacted so tightly that they form solid rock. Chemical sedimentary rocks, like limestone, halite, and flint, form from chemical precipitation. A chemical precipitate is a chemical compound—for instance, calcium carbonate, salt, and silica—that forms when the solution it is dissolved in, usually water, evaporates and leaves the compound behind. This occurs as water travels through Earth’s crust, weathering the rock and dissolving some of its minerals, transporting it elsewhere. These dissolved minerals are precipitated when the water evaporates. Metamorphic Rocks Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have been changed from their original form by immense heat or pressure. Metamorphic rocks have two classes: foliated and nonfoliated. When a rock with flat or elongated minerals is put under immense pressure, the minerals line up in layers, creating foliation . Foliation is the aligning of elongated or platy minerals, like hornblende or mica, perpendicular to the direction of pressure that is applied. An example of this transformation can be seen with granite, an igneous rock . Granite contains long and platy minerals that are not initially aligned, but when enough pressure is added, those minerals shift to all point in the same direction while getting squeezed into flat sheets. When granite undergoes this process, like at a tectonic plate boundary, it turns into gneiss (pronounced “nice”). Nonfoliated rocks are formed the same way, but they do not contain the minerals that tend to line up under pressure and thus do not have the layered appearance of foliated rocks. Sedimentary rocks like bituminous coal, limestone, and sandstone, given enough heat and pressure, can turn into nonfoliated metamorphic rocks like anthracite coal, marble, and quartzite. Nonfoliated rocks can also form by metamorphism, which happens when magma comes in contact with the surrounding rock. Igneous Rocks Igneous rocks (derived from the Latin word for fire) are formed when molten hot material cools and solidifies. Igneous rocks can also be made a couple of different ways. When they are formed inside of the earth, they are called intrusive, or plutonic, igneous rocks. If they are formed outside or on top of Earth’s crust, they are called extrusive, or volcanic, igneous rocks. Granite and diorite are examples of common intrusive rocks. They have a coarse texture with large mineral grains, indicating that they spent thousands or millions of years cooling down inside the earth, a time course that allowed large mineral crystals to grow. Alternatively, rocks like basalt and obsidian have very small grains and a relatively fine texture. This happens because when magma erupts into lava, it cools more quickly than it would if it stayed inside the earth, giving crystals less time to form. Obsidian cools into volcanic glass so quickly when ejected that the grains are impossible to see with the naked eye. Extrusive igneous rocks can also have a vesicular, or “holey” texture. This happens when the ejected magma still has gases inside of it so when it cools, the gas bubbles are trapped and end up giving the rock a bubbly texture. An example of this would be pumice.

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The Rock Cycle – Diagram and Explanation

The rock cycle is the natural, continuous process that forms, breaks down, and reforms rock through geological, chemical, and physical processes. Through the cycle, rocks convert between igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary forms. It is a dynamic system that recycles Earth’s materials in different forms, from molten magma deep below the surface to solid rock formations and sediments. Understanding the rock cycle is not only crucial for geologists but also provides insight into Earth’s history, climate change, and the availability of natural resources.

Importance of the Rock Cycle

The rock cycle is an integral aspect of Earth sciences that sheds light on Earth’s age, history, and the forces that shape it. Understanding the rock cycle is key to discerning how rocks change forms, contributing to soil fertility, and providing resources like minerals and fossil fuels. It also has practical applications in industries like construction, where rock characteristics must be understood for structural integrity.

Types of Rocks

The three types of rocks are igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks:

Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks form from the cooling and solidification of molten magma or lava. They have a crystalline structure.

• Intrusive Igneous Rocks : These rocks form when magma cools slowly beneath Earth’s crust , allowing for larger crystals to develop. Examples include granite, which is commonly used in countertops and is known for its coarse-grained structure.
• Extrusive Igneous Rocks : These rocks form when lava erupts from a volcano and cools quickly on Earth’s surface. This rapid cooling results in small or even microscopic crystals. Basalt is a common extrusive rock often found in oceanic crust.

Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks form through the layering, compression, and cementation of mineral and organic matter. These rocks often have a layered appearance and are softer than most igneous and metamorphic rocks.

• Clastic Sedimentary Rocks : These rocks, such as sandstone and shale, form from the mechanical breakdown of other rocks and are classified by grain size and composition.
• Organic Sedimentary Rocks : Limestone and coal are examples of organic sedimentary rocks. Limestone typically comes from shells and skeletal fragments of marine organisms, while coal forms from the accumulation of plant debris.
• Chemical Sedimentary Rocks : Halite and gypsum are examples of rocks formed through evaporation or chemical reactions. Halite, or rock salt, forms when saltwater evaporates, while gypsum forms in various evaporative contexts including desert ponds and lake beds.

Metamorphic Rocks

Subjecting either igneous or sedimentary rocks to high heat and pressure alters their physical or chemical composition, forming metamorphic rocks .

• Foliated Metamorphic Rocks : These rocks, like slate and schist, have a layered or banded appearance from exposure to heat and directed pressure.
• Non-foliated Metamorphic Rocks : These rocks lack layers. Examples of non-foliated metamorphic rocks include marble and quartzite. Marble forms from the metamorphism of limestone, while quartzite forms from the metamorphism of quartz sandstone.

Steps of the Rock Cycle

Molten rock called magma is the source material for rocks. Igneous rocks form both under the surface and above it when magma becomes lava. Heat and pressure changes igneous and sedimentary rocks into metamorphic rocks. Erosion and weathering break igneous and sedimentary rocks up, which compact into sedimentary rocks. Sediments from organic sources also contribute to sedimentary rocks. Tectonic forces drive some rocks back below the surface, where they can change forms or melt and become magma once again.

Melting : Rocks beneath Earth’s crust melt due to high pressure and temperature, forming magma.

Cooling and Solidification : Magma cools and solidifies either beneath the Earth’s surface (intrusive) or upon reaching the surface as lava through volcanic activity (extrusive). Magma and lava form igneous rocks.

Mechanical and Chemical Weathering : Igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks on Earth’s surface undergo mechanical disintegration and chemical decomposition.

Erosion : Natural forces like wind, water, and ice erode rocks. Temperature changes also play a role, making rocks expand and contract and sometimes break.

Deposition : Eroded materials from all rock types as well as organic sources settle in basins.

Compaction and Cementation : Layers of sediment are compacted and cemented together, forming sedimentary rocks.

Heat and Pressure : Existing rocks undergo changes in physical or chemical composition due to high heat and pressure, leading to the formation of metamorphic rocks.

Remelting : Metamorphic rocks may melt again, forming magma, and the cycle continues.

Forces Driving the Rock Cycle

Several forces driving the rock cycle, including internal forces within the Earth, surface actions, and even gravity:

Earth’s Internal Heat

• Radioactive Decay : The decay of radioactive isotopes like uranium provides heat, facilitating the melting of rocks.
• The Earth’s surface cools magma and lava, forming rocks. Seasonal changes and variations due to latitude cause temperature stresses in rocks and impact the rate at which weathering occurs.

Tectonic Forces

• Subduction Zones : Subduction zones occur where tectonic plates meet and one gets pushed beneath another, leading to high heat and pressure.
• Rift Zones : Plates moving apart form spreading rift zones that allow magma to rise, creating new crust.

Surface Processes

• Weathering Agents : Water, ice, and wind play roles in mechanical weathering.
• Chemical Agents : Acid rain and oxidization cause chemical weathering. Water dissolves soluble compounds.

Gravitational Forces

• Gravity : Aids in the settling of sedimentary particles during the deposition phase.
• Blatt, Harvey; Tracy, Robert J. (1996). Petrology; Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic (2nd ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-2438-3.
• Bucher, Kurt; Grapes, Rodney (2011). Petrogenesis of Metamorphic Rocks . Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-3-540-74169-5.
• Plummer, Charles; McGeary, David; Carlson, Diane (2005). Physical Geology . Mc Graw Hill. ISBN 0-07-293353-4.
• Vigneresse, Jean Louis; Barbey, Pierre; Cuney, Michel (1996). “Rheological Transitions During Partial Melting and Crystallization with Application to Felsic Magma Segregation and Transfer”. Journal of Petrology . 37 (6): 1579–1600. doi: 10.1093/petrology/37.6.1579
• Wyllie, Peter J. (August 1988). “Magma Genesis, Plate Tectonics, and Chemical Differentiation of the Earth”. Reviews of Geophysics . 26 (3): 370–404. doi: 10.1029/RG026i003p00370

Related Posts

The Rock Cycle

Many of Earth’s key processes function in cycles and rock cycle is no exception. The rock cycle is a web of processes that outlines how each of the three major rock types—igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary—form and break down based on the different applications of heat and pressure over time. For example, sedimentary rock shale becomes slate when heat and pressure are added. The more heat and pressure you add, the further the rock metamorphoses until it becomes gneiss. If it is heated further, the rock will melt completely and reform as an igneous rock.

Earth Science, Geology, Geography, Physical Geography

Understanding Global Change

Discover why the climate and environment changes, your place in the Earth system, and paths to a resilient future.

The rock cycle describes the processes through which the three main rock types (igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary) transform from one type into another. The formation, movement and transformation of rocks results from Earth’s internal heat , pressure from tectonic processes , and the effects of water , wind , gravity, and biological (including human) activities.  The texture, structure, and composition of a rock indicate the conditions under which it formed and tell us about the history of the Earth.

On this page:

What is the rock cycle, earth system model of the rock cycle, explore the earth system, links to learn more.

For the classroom:

• Teaching Resources

Global Change Infographic

The rock cycle is an essential part of How the Earth System Works.  Click the image on the left to open the Understanding Global Change Infographic . Locate the rock cycle icon and identify other Earth system processes and phenomena that cause changes to, or are affected by, the rock cycle.

Rocks can be: (1) made of minerals, each of which has a specific crystal structure and chemical composition; (2) made of pieces of other rocks; (3) glassy (like obsidian); or, (4) contain material made by living organisms (for example coal, which contains carbon from plants). Different types of rocks form in Earth’s different environments at or below the Earth’s surface. For example, igneous rocks form when molten rock from the mantle or within the crust (see plate tectonics ) cools and either hardens slowly underground (e.g., granite), or hardens quickly if it erupts from a volcano (e.g., basalt). Rocks that experience sufficient heat and pressure within the Earth, without melting, transform into metamorphic rocks.  Rock exposed by mountain building or even modest uplift weathers and erodes and the resulting sediments can form sedimentary rocks. The formation and transformation of the various rock types can take many paths through the rock cycle depending on environmental conditions, as shown in the diagram below.

A simplified diagram of the rock cycle highlighting some of the UGC concepts related to this process

Molten lava cooling to form igneous rocks forming in Hawai’i National Park (left) metamorphic rocks in Death Valley National Park (right). Source: NPS Igneous Rocks and NPS Metamorphic Rocks

The rock cycle is affected by various human activities and environmental phenomena, including:

Sedimentary rocks along the California coast. Source: Explore Sediments Story Map

• The Earth’s internal heat and pressure, which can cause rock to melt completely or transform it into a metamorphic rock.
• The uplift of land caused by tectonic processes , which exposes rock that was underground to weathering and erosion .
• The rate of weathering, which is affected by climatic conditions such as precipitation and temperature . The rate at which the chemical reactions of weathering break down minerals often increases in the presence of water and under warmer temperatures. Plant growth , especially roots can physically break up rocks and also change the environmental chemistry (for example, increase acidity), increasing the rate of chemical weathering. In turn, the kind of rock that is weathered determines soil quality , nutrient levels (especially nitrogen and phosphorus levels), and local biodiversity .
• Rates of erosion caused by water , wind , ice , or gravity, which are driven by the water cycle, atmospheric and ocean circulation patterns, and regional topography (the structure of the landscape).
• The size and depth of the bodies of water, such as lakes, rivers, or the ocean, where sediment is deposited. Slower rates of water flow lead to the deposition of finer grained sediments and to slower rates of deposition.
• The extraction of rocks and fossil fuels , which in turn can destabilize soils , increase erosion , and decrease water quality by increasing sediment and pollutants in rivers and streams.
• Urbanization , which involves paving land with concrete, which can increase water runoff, increasing erosion and decreasing soil quality in the surrounding areas.
• Hydraulic fracking to remove oil and gas, which uses water, sand, and chemicals to create new or expand existing cracks in rocks that allow oil and gas to flow into drill holes for extraction .
• Human land and water use , including deforestation and agricultural activities .  Removing trees and other plants, plowing fields, and overgrazing by livestock destabilizes soils and can increase rates of erosion by 10 to 100 times.
• Damming rivers and extracting water from freshwater ecosystems for human use changes where and how much sedimentation occurs, which affects soil quality and causes changes in habitats .
• Plants and other organisms, such as those that build coral reefs, can trap sediment that otherwise might be deposited elsewhere.
• Extreme weather events , which can cause accelerated rates of erosion due to flooding or wave action.

The Earth system model below includes some of the processes and phenomena related to the rock cycle.  These processes operate at various rates and on different spatial and temporal scales. For example, urbanization and industrialization of many agricultural activities has occurred over the last 300 years, and especially over the last 70 years, while tectonic processes and mountain building occur over millions of years. Can you think of additional cause and effect relationships between the parts of the rock cycle and other processes in the Earth system?

Click the icons and bolded terms (e.g. plate tectonics , Earth’s internal heat, and erosion ) on this page to learn more about these process and phenomena. Alternatively, explore the Understanding Global Change Infographic and find new topics that are of interest and/or locally relevant to you.

• National Park Service: Rocks and Minerals
• National Park Service: Igneous Rocks
• National Park Service: Sedimentary Rocks
• National Park Service: Metamorphic Rocks

Home — Essay Samples — Science — Geology — The Intricacies of the Rock Cycle: An In-Depth Analysis

The Intricacies of The Rock Cycle: an In-depth Analysis

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4: The Rock Cycle

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• 4.1: What Is A Rock?
• 4.2: The Rock Cycle
• 4.3: Igneous Rocks
• 4.4: Sedimentary Rocks
• 4.5: Metamorphic Rocks

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What is the Rock Cycle

The rock cycle is the process that describes the gradual transformation between the three main types of rocks : sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous. It is occurring continuously in nature through geologic time.

What Causes the Rock Cycle

It occurs due to:

• Plate tectonic activity
• Erosional processes

Steps of the Rock Cycle: How does it Work

1) Formation of Igneous Rock – Melting, Cooling, and Crystallization

Magma, the molten rock present deep inside the earth, solidifies due to cooling and crystallizes to form a type of rock called igneous rocks . Cooling of igneous rocks can occur slowly beneath the surface of the earth or rapidly at its surface.

2) Formation of Sedimentary Rock – Weathering, Erosion, Sedimentation, and Compaction

Due to weathering and erosional activities, the igneous rocks are broken down to form sediments in the form of gravel, sand, silt, and clay, which gets mixed and pressed together for extended periods to form sedimentary rocks .

3) Formation of Metamorphic Rocks – Metamorphism

Over a very long period of time, sedimentary and igneous rocks end up being buried deep underground the soil, usually because of the movement of tectonic plates. Deep below the surface, these rocks are exposed to high heat and pressure, which change them into a different type of rock called metamorphic rock.

4) Weathering

Igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks present on the surface of the earth are constantly being broken down by wind and water over a long time.

5) Transportation

Carrying away of broken rocks by rain, streams, rivers, and oceans to a distant place from their origin.

6) Deposition

During the carriage of rocks by rivers, the rock particles (mixed with soil) sink and become a layer of sediment. Often the sediments build up and form small accumulations, which over time and pressure turn into sedimentary rock.

Melting of underground metamorphic rock forms magma, which on crystallization forms igneous rock, thus continuing the cycle.

Why is the Rock Cycle Important

• Helping in the formation of soil thus sustaining every life forms on earth
• Forming life-sustaining minerals such as sodium, iron, potassium, and calcium into the biosphere
• Forming the energy reserves of the earth like fossil fuels and radioactive sources
• Providing the building materials used to build structures such as iron, limestone, marble, granite, and basalt
• Providing raw materials for currency, investments, and adornments such as gold, diamonds, rubies, and emeralds

Ans. The two main forces that provide energy for the earth’s rock cycle are the sun and the internal heat of the earth. While the sun provides energy for weathering, erosion, and transportation, the earth’s internal heat helps in the processes like subduction, melting, and metamorphism.

Ans. The concept of the rock cycle was first suggested by James Hutton, the 18th-century founder of modern geology.

Ans. Since the rock cycle is a continuous process, the cycle does not stop after the formation of quartzite. Eventually, the quartzite rock could change into a sedimentary or an igneous rock to continue the cycle.

Ans. Compaction is the process in which sediment is squeezed to reduce the pore space between the grains due to the weight and pressure of overlying layers. Cementation is the process in which sediments are glued together by minerals that are deposited by water. Both compaction and cementation help in the formation of sedimentary rocks.

Article was last reviewed on Monday, November 2, 2020

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Chapter 3 Intrusive Igneous Rocks

3.1 The Rock Cycle

The rock components of the crust are slowly but constantly being changed from one form to another and the processes involved are summarized in the rock cycle (Figure 3.2). The rock cycle is driven by two forces: (1) Earth’s internal heat engine, which moves material around in the core and the mantle and leads to slow but significant changes within the crust, and (2) the hydrological cycle, which is the movement of water, ice, and air at the surface, and is powered by the sun.

The rock cycle is still active on Earth because our core is hot enough to keep the mantle moving, our atmosphere is relatively thick, and we have liquid water. On some other planets or their satellites, such as the Moon, the rock cycle is virtually dead because the core is no longer hot enough to drive mantle convection and there is no atmosphere or liquid water.

In describing the rock cycle, we can start anywhere we like, although it’s convenient to start with magma. As we’ll see in more detail below, magma is rock that is hot to the point of being entirely molten. This happens at between about 800° and 1300°C, depending on the composition and the pressure, onto the surface and cool quickly (within seconds to years) — forming extrusive igneous rock (Figure 3.3).

Magma can either cool slowly within the crust (over centuries to millions of years) — forming intrusive igneous rock, or erupt onto the surface and cool quickly (within seconds to years) — forming extrusive igneous rock. Intrusive igneous rock typically crystallizes at depths of hundreds of metres to tens of kilometres below the surface. To change its position in the rock cycle, intrusive igneous rock has to be uplifted and exposed by the erosion of the overlying rocks.

Through the various plate-tectonics-related processes of mountain building, all types of rocks are uplifted and exposed at the surface. Once exposed, they are weathered, both physically (by mechanical breaking of the rock) and chemically (by weathering of the minerals), and the weathering products — mostly small rock and mineral fragments — are eroded, transported, and then deposited as sediments . Transportation and deposition occur through the action of glaciers, streams, waves, wind, and other agents, and sediments are deposited in rivers, lakes, deserts, and the ocean.

Exercise 3.1 Rock around the Rock-Cycle clock

Referring to the rock cycle (Figure 3.2), list the steps that are necessary to cycle some geological material starting with a sedimentary rock, which then gets converted into a metamorphic rock, and eventually a new sedimentary rock.

A conservative estimate is that each of these steps would take approximately 20 million years (some may be less, others would be more, and some could be much more). How long might it take for this entire process to be completed?

Unless they are re-eroded and moved along, sediments will eventually be buried by more sediments. At depths of hundreds of metres or more, they become compressed and cemented into sedimentary rock . Again through various means, largely resulting from plate-tectonic forces, different kinds of rocks are either uplifted, to be re-eroded, or buried deeper within the crust where they are heated up, squeezed, and changed into metamorphic rock .

Physical Geology Copyright © 2015 by Steven Earle is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Home » rock cycle definition diagrams examples

What Is The Rock Cycle: Definition, Diagram, And Examples

Daniel Nelson

The rock cycle is a concept of geology that describes the transition of rocks between the three rock types: igneous, sedimentary , and metamorphic. The cycle outlines how each rock type can be converted to another rock type through geologic processes.

What is the rock cycle?

Most of us think of rocks as objects which don’t change. We perceive that rocks just continue to exist as is, or at least we treat them as if they do. Yet the truth is that on a geological scale, a scale of millions of years, nothing is unchanging. The rocks and the soil around us are the products of millions of years of transformation due to a variety of different geological processes. These geological processes can be referred to as the “rock cycle.”

The discovery or description of the rock cycle is usually credited to James Hutton, a geologist who lived during the 18th century. Hutton is sometimes referred to as “the father of modern geology.” Hutton noted that the process had “no vestige of a beginning and no prospect of an end.” He had realized it was a process that had been going on since the formation of the Earth, and that the cycle moves rocks, melts them, and transforms them endlessly.

“As in geology, so in social institutions, we may discover the causes of all past changes in the present invariable order of society.” — Henry David Thoreau

Similar to the process of recycling , rocks move through a cyclical process. This process can take rocks from being magma to being on the surface and experiencing erosion then back to being magma. The rock cycle can produce and transform three different types of rocks: sedimentary rock, igneous rock, and metamorphic rock. How are the three different types of rock classified, and how do they transform into each other?

In essence, geological processes can transform one type of rock into another. Igneous rocks can be transformed into either metamorphic rocks or sedimentary rocks, while sedimentary rocks can transform into both metamorphic and igneous rocks. Naturally, metamorphic rocks can transform into sedimentary or igneous rocks. Before we dive into the processes which transform the three different rock types into one another, it would be helpful to define some terms.

Metamorphic Rock

Metamorphic rocks are created by intense heat and pressure. The pressure and/or heat is so intense that it can transform the basic properties of another type of rock. Typically tectonic processes (the processes responsible for the moving of the continents) create metamorphic rocks, but they can also be created through smaller scale collisions and pressure situations. Note that while either/both high pressure or high-temperature processes can create metamorphic rocks, one force can be dominant in the creation of them. The temperature level must also be within a certain range as if the temperature becomes too high, igneous rocks will be made instead.

There are two different types of metamorphic rock: foliated metamorphic and non-foliated metamorphic. Foliated metamorphic rock includes rock like schist and slate, which have prominent bands on them thanks to their exposure to high amounts of heat and pressure. Non-foliated rocks don’t have bands and include things like marble and quartzite.

Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks are made through high temperatures, hot enough to melt rocks and turn them into magma. The cooling and solidification of magma that happens over time creates igneous rocks. Magma starts off very hot below the surface of the Earth, but as it is pushed towards the surface it begins to cool. Rapid cooling of magma can lead to rock formations with tiny crystals in them, while slower cooling can lead to large crystals. The most extreme form of rapid cooling is a volcanic eruption . In the case of a volcanic eruption, the magma is spewed directly into the air, and this means that the magma has a chance of bypassing the rock stage entirely and transforming into volcanic glass.

Igneous rocks are subdivided into two different categories, intrusive and extrusive. Intrusive igneous rocks are those which slowly cool beneath the surface, and include granite and peridotite. Extrusive igneous rock refers to those rocks which are shot out onto the Earth’s surface due to a volcanic eruption, and these include obsidian (a form of volcanic glass), basalt and pumice .

Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks are created through the process of sediment deposit and consolidation. Sediment is any type of geological particles, particles made out of Earth, that are small enough to be carried off and moved around by wind or water. These particles can build up in an area over time, such as at the bottom of a river. After the particles build up they can join together and harden into a single sedimentary rock. Though both igneous and metamorphic rocks are created beneath the surface of the Earth, sedimentary rocks can be created while buried under a relatively small amount of soil, or even while on the surface.

Sedimentary rocks come in three different types: clastic, chemical and organic. Clastic sedimentary rocks include shale and sandstone and are usually formed by weathering, while chemical sedimentary rocks form from a chemical precipitate and include rock salt and flint. Finally, organic sedimentary rocks include dolomite and coal and they are formed by the accumulation of organic debris like dead leaves or animals.

magma chamber (batholith) (A); dike (B); laccolith (C); pegmatite (D); sill (E); stratovolcano (F) Photo: Woudloper , Public Domain, Wikimedia Commons

Transitions Between Rock Types

As hinted at above, the transition between rock types can happen due to a variety of processes. Metamorphic and sedimentary rocks can become igneous rocks by being turned into magma at high temperatures, which usually takes millions of years to happen. Metamorphic rocks are created through temperature and pressure, as long as the temperature isn’t too high. Metamorphic rocks can be created through either contact metamorphism or regional metamorphism. Regional metamorphism happens as geological regions smash together, like at mountain ranges, which creates foliated metamorphic rocks. Contact metamorphism happens when rocks come close to hot igneous rocks, which ends up altering the properties of the rock and creates crystals. Finally, surface processes like precipitation and weathering can transform metamorphic and igneous rocks into sedimentary rocks.

Geological Processes Which Transform Rocks

The primary forces behind the rock cycle are geological. These forces are subduction and uplifting. Uplifting refers to the pushing of rock out of the Earth’s surface, creating mountains. Subduction is when one rock plate submerges beneath another plate and becomes magma deep underneath the Earth. Both subduction and uplifting are caused by plate tectonics . The continental plates which lie on the Earth’s mantle are moving. While the plates usually only move at a few centimeters a year, over millions of years this leads to massive changes in the Earth’s surface. As these plates collide and slip past one another, certain regions collide and are pushed up while other regions are pushed below.

Subduction and uplifting play an important role in the rock cycle. Here the Juan de Fuca plate moves under the North American plate. Photo: USGS, Public Domain

The phenomenon of seafloor spreading also plays a role in the rock cycle. The tectonic plates which collide with each other are by necessity pulling away from each other in other areas. This means that magma is released from the Earth where the plates are dividing, deep in the ocean. This phenomenon leads to the creation of more seafloor along with metamorphic rocks and igneous rocks.

Surface processes like weathering also contribute to the rock cycle. Wind and rain can wear away and rocks over time, breaking apart igneous and metamorphic rock structures into small particles which then join together to create sedimentary rocks.

Our world’s geology is driven by processes that have been going on since the formation of the Earth. Every rock you see, from the smooth stones in the riverbed to the mountains in the distance, is part of the ongoing cycle.

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• Earth Science

We see rocks in our surroundings, from different shapes to sizes. Rocks never remain the same, and they are always changing with time. The Rock cycle is a basic concept in geology that describes the time-consuming transitions through geologic time.

Rocks are constantly being recycled and going through several processes of chemical and physical changes. There are three main rock types:

• Sedimentary
• Metamorphic

The diagram below shows that rocks are altered or destroyed when it is forced out of its equilibrium conditions. This cycle of rock formation and wearing out is constantly recycled the earth’s minerals. The rock cycle is nothing but a process by which rocks of one type with certain characteristics change into rocks of another kind.

Rock Cycle: Transition to Igneous

When rocks are pushed deep under the earth’s surface, they may melt into magma. If the conditions no longer exist for the magma to stay in its liquid state, it will solidify into an igneous rock.

Rock Cycle: Transition to Metamorphic

The rock exposed to high temperatures and pressures can be changed physically or chemically to form a different rock, called metamorphic.

Read More: Rock Types

For more information on the formation of metamorphic rocks, watch the below video

Rock Cycle: Transition to Sedimentary

Rocks exposed to the atmosphere are very unstable and subject to the processes of weathering and erosion. This process breaks the original rock down into smaller fragments and carries away dissolved materials. Sedimentary rocks form from deposits that accumulate on the Earth’s surface.

Read More: Weathering

Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs

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Joint Earth Science Education Initiative: the rock cycle

This describes the rock cycle in terms of ‘products’ and ‘processes’. Products are types of rock, sediment etc, and are presented in boxes. ‘Processes’ are effects that turn one product into another; for example the process of melting turns one product (metamorphic rock) into another product (magma).

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The Rock Cycle

The rock cycle shows how rocks change. Pages: 75-80 Questions 1-6 How are rocks and minerals different? Rocks and minerals are different because minerals are always made up of the same elements in the same proportions. But a rock is naturally found solid that is usually made up if more type if minerals. 2. What are the three types of rocks? Three types rocks are Igneous rock , Sedimentary rock , Metamorphic rock . 3. Which rock types are most common within Earth’s crust? Which type is most common at Earth’s surface? The rock types that are most common within the Earth’s crust are Igneous and Metamorphic. The type of rock types that are common within the Earth’s surface Sedimentary rocks. 4. Why is the set of natural processes into other …show more content…

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The Rock Cycle: Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic Rocks

• peachyessay
• February 19, 2021
• Biology – Science  , Sample Essay

The Rock Cycle

The rock cycle describes the formation of rocks over a period of time. Unlike the water cycle, it is difficult to see the rock cycle steps happening. The process occurs very slowly hence taking years to complete. However, factors such as volcanic eruptions and floods speed up the process of rock formation. There are three types of rocks; igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks (Gill 22). Igneous rocks are formed with the rapid cooling of hot magma. Sedimentary rocks on the other hand are formed when the layers of dirt and rock particles are pilled and compressed over a period of time. Finally, metamorphic rocks a combination of rock types which are formed by high pressure and heat.

Introduction

The rock cycle happens in the following steps:

• Weathering and erosion

Transportation

• Compaction and cementation

Metamorphism

• Rock melting

Weathering and Erosion

The following section describes the weathering process of the rocks through chemical weathering. There are four types of weathering; freeze-thaw, exfoliation, chemical and biological weathering (Tang Zhi-yong & Hong-tao Zheng 65). Chemical weathering refers to the disintegration of rocks through a chemical reaction. The reaction occurs between the rocks, water and other substances dissolved in water resulting in the disintegration of the rocks. When this happens, new minerals are formed which combine with other chemical conditions at the surface of the earth. Chemical weathering is essential in the formation of soil which facilitates the growth of plants.

The chemical reactions involved in the disintegration of rock involves components such as acid, oxygen and water. Weathering of rocks happens by the action of rain water, extreme temperatures and biological activities (Tang Zhi-yong & Hong-tao Zheng 67). The following section describes the stages of chemical weathering in which rocks are broken down through hydrolysis, oxidation, carbonation, hydration and dehydration.

Hydrolysis refers to the chemical breakdown of substance with the aid of water. The reaction between the rock and water leads to a breakdown of the rock.  Over a long period of time, the water infiltrates the rock causing weak fragments that eventually disintegrate to tiny pieces. Oxidation in the chemical weathering process occurs when the rock reacts with oxygen. As a result of the oxidation, the iron in the rocks begin to rust. The presence of moisture further speeds up the reaction causing the disintegration.

Carbonation occurs as a result of a reaction between water and carbon dioxide to form carbonic acid. Carbonation mainly occurs in limestone and it results in the formation of hydrogen carbonate which is soluble in water. On the other hand hydration refers to the absorption of water molecules into the mineral composition of the rock (Tang Zhi-yong & Hong-tao Zheng 69). As a result of this absorption, the volume of the rock which eventually leads to deformation of the rock. The pressure exerted inside the rock builds up overtime hence it disintegrates the structure of the rock causing cracks which eventually become soil particles. Finally, dehydration refers to the removal of water from the rock. The process leads the breakdown of rocks over periods of time.

            When the igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks are broken down into tiny pieces the particles are washed away. The rushing water transports the particles into streams, rivers and oceans. Wind also facilitates the transportation of the small rock particles.

The flow of water carrying the rock particles into the ocean causes a buildup of the materials. The rock particles mixed with soil combine to form a layer of sediment. The buildup of the sediments creates little islands within the river which eventually cause deltas. The deltas form water channels in the river.

Figure 1: The process of rock formation

Compaction and Cementation

            The continued accumulation of soil and rock particles cause a compact mass caused by pressure exerted by the buildup of the materials. The dissolved minerals in the water fill the gaps between the particles acting as cement (Tyburczy & Du Frane 54). Over several years of the compaction and sedimentation, the sediment turns into a sedimentary rock.

            The movement of tectonic plates below the earth’s surface buries the sedimentary and igneous rocks below the surface. Hence, the rocks are exposed to high heat and pressure changing them to metamorphic rock.

Rock Melting

The increased pressure from the movement of the tectonic plates cause the rocks to melt forming magma. The accumulation of magma causes a volcanic eruption releasing the magma to the earth’s surface. When the magma gets to the earth, it is referred to as lava. With time, the lava cools and hardens forming igneous rock. The formation of the new igneous rocks starts the process of weathering and erosion hence repeating the cycle.

In the rock cycle, igneous rocks undergo weathering and erosion which is then transported to oceans and seas. The accumulation of the particles causes the formation of sedimentary rocks. Overtime the sedimentary rocks are buried underground, the heat and pressure forces the rocks to melt forming metamorphic rocks (Hunt 301). The melting of the rocks causes formation of magma which is converted into lava. The condensation of lava causes the formation of igneous rocks and the process begins again.

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Rocks for Leaving Cert Geography

Rocks Key Words:

• Igneous: Rocks made from magma or lava.
• Sedimentary: Rocks made from sediments of other rocks and/or fossils/dead plant and animal remains.
• Metamorphic: Rocks formed when heat or pressure changes the composition of other rocks.
• Intrusive: Inside the earth’s crust.
• Extrusive: On top of/on the earth’s surface.
• Plutonic: Intrusive
• Volcanic: Extrusive

Past Exam Questions:

• Explain the formation of Igneous/Sedimentary/Metamorphic rocks.

(This question can contain just one type or sometimes you must explain two or you could be given a choice between two groups).

• Explain how different rock type produce distinctive landscapes in Ireland, with reference to examples you have studied.
• Humans interact with the rock cycle in a number of ways. Describe and explain how this interaction with the rock cycle takes place, with reference to one of the following: Mining, Extracting Building Materials, Oil/Gas Exploitation, Geothermal Energy Production.

You may also like: Complete Guide to Leaving Cert Geography

~Sample Answer

Igneous Rocks

Rocks are continually formed, changed, destroyed and reconstructed as part of the rock cycle. The rock cycle is the process by which each rock type can be changed into another. Rocks vary in their origin, formation and characteristics. There are 3 main rock categories, igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. This essay will focus on the formation of igneous rocks, the examples I will use are granite and basalt. Igneous rocks are formed when magma or lava cools and hardens within or on the earth’s crust. They can be either intrusive (plutonic) or extrusive (volcanic) depending on where they form.

Intrusive igneous rocks are formed within the earth’s crust. This happens when magma cools slowly, deep inside the rock of the earth’s crust. Rocks like granite are formed this way, they contain minerals such as feldspar, mica and quartz. The amount of the minerals present will determine the colour of the rock. Granite can be black, white, pink or grey. Granite forms at destructive plate boundaries when the oceanic crust is subducted beneath the continental crust. The oceanic crust is pushed into the mantle causing the plate to melt, magma rises inside the buckled plate through a small fissure. As the magma gathers here inside the crust the rock that surrounds it acts as an insulating blanket. This blanket causes the rock to cool very slowly, forming large crystals and producing granite rock as it does so. Granite is a coarse grained rock with large crystals. It forms the core of many fold mountains e.g. the Caledonian Fold Mountains. Granite can be found in the Wicklow Mountains and the Mourne Mountains in Ireland.

Extrusive igneous rocks are formed on top of the surface of the earth. This happens when lava flows out from the vent of a volcano and cools and hardens on the cone or on the land that surrounds a fissure. The lava was once magma but forced its way towards the crack in the crust and between the layers of rock. As the cracks were narrow the magma reaches the surface as lava but cools quickly as it comes into contact with the atmosphere. This causes the rock to have only microscopic crystals because of the speed it cools at. The lava flows out without violence and spreads evenly, 5-6km thick. The thick layers of lava form basalt when they cool quickly on the surface. This process occurred at the Giants Causeway in Co. Antrim where lava spilled out on to the surface and cooled in hexagonal columns over a large area of land on the coastline of Antrim. Basalt is also a medium grained rock, usually a dark colour, charcoal or black. Basalt is used for building roads.

~Tip to remember : Intrusive means inside and so is formed by magma. Extrusive means outside (exit) and is formed by lava.

Sedimentary Rocks

Rocks are continually formed, changed, destroyed and reconstructed as part of the rock cycle. The rock cycle is the process by which each rock type can be changed into another. Rocks vary in their origin, formation and characteristics. There are 3 main rock categories, igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. This essay will focus on the formation of sedimentary rocks, the examples I will use are limestone and sandstone. Sedimentary rocks are formed when sediments of other rocks, and or dead plants and animals are lithified, compressed and cemented together forming a rock with layers. Sedimentary rocks can be organic and inorganic.

Organic sedimentary rocks are those made from something that was once living such as plants or animals. An example of an organic sedimentary rock is limestone. Limestone was formed over millions of years by the remains or animals and plant compressing and cementing under great pressure. Irelands sedimentary rocks were formed at various stages as the Eurasian plate drifted north from its original location near the Antarctica about 500 million years ago. The climates Ireland experienced on its journey and the position above and below sea level helped the formation of limestone rock. Limestone formed under the sea near the equator. When shell sea creatures die, they remain on the sea bed sometimes a victim of the waves which break them up into tiny pieces and sometimes forming mud. This is what makes up the limestone, the sediments and mud. The sediment builds up and are compressed by their own weight cementing together and forming the rock. Limestone also forms when water containing calcium carbonates evaporates and deposits sediments on the sea floor. Over millions of years layers of sediment builds up, compresses and cements forming the rock. Limestone rock contains layers called strata, vertical joints and horizontal bedding planes. Irelands limestone is called carboniferous limestone and it is the most common rock in Ireland. As the rock contains calcium carbonate it is a victim of carbonation which is evident at the Burren Co. Clare, this is a karst region, an area of exposed limestone that has been formed and altered by chemical weathering.

Inorganic sedimentary rocks are those made from lithified material e.g. other rocks that have been weathered down into sediments. The more common type of inorganic sedimentary rock is sandstone and the most common type of sandstone in Ireland is old red sandstone (ORS). This ORS was formed around 350 million years ago when Ireland was located at the same latitude as Southern African Deserts and has the same climate that they do today. The Caledonian mountains of Galway, Mayo, Donegal and Wicklow were victims of heavy rain from time to time. Flash floods flooded the lowland areas as the rain rushed down off the side of the mountains. Debris from the floods spread out over the lowland channels and floodplains in the form of beaches (along the seashore), gravel and sand. Over long periods of time and after a huge build-up of such sediments the deposits were cemented into larger particles. The cemented gravel made a rock called conglomerates and the cemented sand created sandstone. Large dunes of sand were also compressed into sandstone but later it was covered with limestone deposits. The sediments are laid down in layers and each successive layer compressed and compacted the next layer. Sandstone is exposed in the mountains of southern Ireland e.g. Macgillycuddy Reeks, the Galtees, and the Knockmealdowns. Sandstone is a coarse grained rock and usually brown or red in colour. The iron particles trapped in the rock give them the reddish colour as they become rusted.

Metamorphic Rocks

Rocks are continually formed, changed, destroyed and reconstructed as part of the rock cycle. The rock cycle is the process by which each rock type can be changed into another. Rocks vary in their origin, formation and characteristics. There are 3 main rock categories, igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. This essay will focus on the formation of metamorphic rocks. The examples I will use are marble and quartzite. Metamorphic rocks are formed when igneous and sedimentary rocks come into contact with great heat (magma) and/or pressure (folding) and their chemical composition is changed forming a new rock type e.g. limestone changes to marble.

Metamorphism is the process in which a rocks composition is changed by great heat or pressure, there are two types; regional metamorphism and thermal metamorphism. Thermal metamorphism is the process of using heat alone and regional is where great heat and pressure will be applied over a large area e.g. fold mountain building.

Marble is created through regional metamorphism. Limestone changes to marble through great heat and pressure where the calcite in limestone changes and fossils disappear as interlocking grains grow. Marble is created at destructive plate boundaries where fold mountains are made. Most of Irelands metamorphic rocks were formed during the Caledonian fold mountain period. Here the North American and European plates collided causing the crust to buckle upwards and magma rose through the cracks inside the buckled rock. The pressure from the folding and heat from the magma caused limestone to change into marble. The metamorphism process changed the chemical composition of limestone. We know this as limestone is grey however Kilkenny marble is black and cork red.  If the limestone is pure it forms white marble. However as limestone contains layers of clay and other materials it may form attractive flow banding (marble effect) and the other colours such as black, green and pink.

Quartzite is created through thermal metamorphism. Sandstone changes to marble through great heat. This type of metamorphism occurs when the heat from volcanic activity changes the rock that it comes into contact with. Quartzite in  the Sugarloaf mountain in Co. Wicklow was formed when hot molten magma came into contact with sandstone changing the composition of the rock. Quartzite is a light coloured rock and can also be found in Croagh Patrick, Co. Mayo.

~Sample Answer (Human Interaction)

  Humans interact with the rock cycle in many different ways, I will explain this process by examining Geothermal Energy in Iceland.

Iceland sits on the middle of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a constructive plate boundary where a lot of volcanic activity takes places. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a huge opening in the ocean floor created as the North American and Eurasian plates separate. Iceland was created when magma rose through this opening and cooled and hardened on the earth’s surface, over time it built up creating an island called Iceland.

Geothermal energy uses heat from rocks (igneous rocks) to heat water, turn into steam and resulting in the creation of energy. This type of energy is produced in Iceland due to the endless amounts of volcanic activity there. Over 90% of houses in Iceland are heated naturally by geothermal energy, this type of energy is one of the cheapest and cleanest forms of energy that exists today.  The magma rises from the mantle and heats the surface of the earth to around 200 degrees Celsius, this heats the water below the rocks. In order to retrieve the boiling water a well is drilled into the rock. The hot water is collected in pipes that are placed in the mantle. The water is superheated but stays in liquid form due to the pressure from the rocks above. However, once this water reaches the surface it changes state and turns to steam, the steam turns turbines and electricity is generated from these turbines. If there is not enough groundwater present then large pipes of cold water must be  pumped into the rock through another series of wells. This water will be around 10 degrees Celsius.

Hot springs can be found all over Iceland and the melt water created provides the country with the potential to create huge amounts of hydroelectric power. Geothermal energy has many benefits for Iceland as a country. It provides 89% of the electricity uses in Reykjavik (capital city) to homes and industry. The geothermal energy is used to heat greenhouses and therefore increasing the production of potatoes and other vegetables. This has creates a longer growing season and encourages horticulture to thrive in Iceland.

Geothermal energy has also created benefits in the tourism industry. Nowadays many tourists travel to visit the ‘blue lagoon’ spa which is a mineral rich, outdoor, heated pool. Tourists also go to Iceland to visit the springs and geysers which are created by the volcanic activity. This increase in tourism adds to the economy of Iceland generating capital in help the development of tertiary economic activities. Iceland has less need to use oil, gas and other non-renewable sources of energy reducing their carbon footprint and the negative impact they have on the environment.

• Post author: Martina
• Post published: February 12, 2018
• Post category: Geography

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