critical issues in adult education

About the Journal

Focus and scope.

The journal is placed in the field of Adult Education. The key term Critical Issues reflects our strategic goal of developing a critical dialogue between adult educators on critical issues that call into question stereotypical perceptions, and questions may remain open, given their ambivalent, controversial, neglected, misunderstood or underdeveloped approach to the literature. Thus, we hope that the journal will contribute to the promotion of ideas and principles of Adult Education with an emphasis on critical reflection and learning for change. 

As relevant to the field of the journal might be considered critical issues within the field of Adult Education that indicatively involve:

• Research, good practices and proposals on crucial issues regarding transformative processes and critical approaches in education, society, governance, policies and other areas of interest, related to the field of Adult Education.
• Redefinition or reassessment of problematic perspectives, theoretical views, or social phenomena.
• Exploration of multiple, different, alternative, ambivalent, controversial perspectives.
• Challenge of taken-for-granted or unjustified assumptions and  practices. 
• Analysis of the power dynamics of a situation. 
• Exploration of disregarded or undermined, however interesting and challenging perspectives.

Article template

Peer Review Process

Research articles under submission are assessed by conduct of parallel “double-blind” evaluation, i.e. are anonymously sent (without mentioning the writers’ specifics) by the journal’s Editorial Board to two members of peer review panel with specialization to the scientific thematic areas of the journal.

Open Access Policy

This journal provides immediate open access to its content on the principle that making research freely available to the public supports a greater global exchange of knowledge.

Editorial Board

Members of the Greek Adult Education community

ANASTASIADIS PANOS , University of Crete, Greece

ARMAOS REMOS , Hellenic Open University, Greece

BABALIS THOMAS , National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece

FRAGKOULIS IOSIF , Hellenic Open University, Greece

GOULAS CHRISTOS , University of Neapolis, Cyprus

GIOTI LABRINA , Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece

KARAGIANNOPOULOU EVANGELIA , University of Ioannina, Greece

KARALIS THANASSIS , University of Patras

KEDRAKA KATERINA , Democritus University of Thrace, Greece

KORONAIOU ALEXANDRA , Panteion University, Greece

KORRE PAVLI MARIA , Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece

KOULAOUZIDIS GEORGE , Hellenic Open University, Greece

KOUTOUZIS MANOLIS , Hellenic Open University, Greece

LINTZERIS PARASKEVAS , National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece

PAVLAKIS MANOS , Frederick University, Cyprus

PHILLIPS NIKI ,  Hellenic Open University, Greece

POULOPOULOS CHARALAMPOS , Democritus University of Thrace, Greece

PROKOU ELENI , Panteion University, Greece

RAIKOU NATASSA , University of Thessaly, Greece

SIFAKIS NIKOS , National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece

TSIBOUKLI ANNA , National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece

VAIKOUSI DANAI , Hellenic Open University, Greece

VALKANOS EFTHYMIOS , University of Macedonia, Greece

VERGIDIS DIMITRIS , University of Patras

ZARIFIS GIORGOS , Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece

Members of the international Adult Education community

BUERGELT PETRA , University of Canberra, Australia

FABRI   LORETTA ,   University of Siena, Italy

FEDELI MONICA , University of Padova, Italy

FINNEGAN FERGAL , National University of Ireland, Ireland

FLEMING TED ,   Columbia University, USA

GOUGOULAKIS PETROS , University of Stockholm, Sweden

HOGGAN CHAD , North Carolina State University, USA

HOGGAN KLOUBERT TETYANA , University of Augsburg, Germany

IRELAND  TIMOTHY , Federal University of Paraiba, Brazil

KASL ELISABETH , Independent Scholar, USA

LAWRENCE RANDEE LIPSON ,   Columbia University, USA 

MARSICK VICTORIA , Columbia University, USA

MAYO PETER , University of Malta, USA

NIKOLAIDES ALIKI , University of Georgia, USA 

POPOVIC  KATARINA , University of Belgrade, Serbia

STRIANO MAURA , University of Naples Federico II, Italy

TAYLOR KATHLEEN , Saint Mary’s College of California, USA

WELCH MARGUERITE , Saint Mary’s College of California, USA

The National Documentation Centre ( www.ekt.gr ) is a national infrastructure. Since 1980, it actively engages in the collection, organization and dissemination of scientific and technological information in Greece and internationally. EKT’s strategic priority is the aggregation, organized online dissemination and preservation of quality-assured scholarly and educational content in a single research infrastructure.

EKT’s vision is “Access to Knowledge”. To this end it implements Open Access policies in research, supports the transfer and dissemination of scientific knowledge, collaborates with research, education and cultural institutions for the aggregation, organization and dissemination of digital content and provides innovative services in scientific information.

EKT provides reliable ePublishing services as part of its scholarly content aggregation and dissemination activities . Its integrated online ePublishing environment is developed with open-source interoperable technology. This affords the incorporation of EKT’s infrastructures into the continuously developing international infrastructure environment.

EKT’s ePublishing services ( http://epublishing.ekt.gr/ ) are directed to public and extended public institution publishers of accredited scholarly journals. They include, most significantly, the organization, documentation and organized dissemination of metadata and content of scholarly journals, the training and consulting services on issues such as intellectual property, the standardization of editorial processes according to internationally accepted standards, the inclusion of content and metadata in international content indexers and harvesters via interoperable systems.

• National Documentation Centre (EKT)

Journal History

The journal of the HAEA began to be published in 2004, exclusively for its members. At that time there was very little Greek-language bibliography on Adult Education. So, there was a big gap that needed to be filled in order for the interested Greek public – which in the meantime was increasing due to the proliferation of adult education programs, as well as the relevant studies that had begun in Hellenic Open University and other universities – to be able to come into contact with the scientific approaches, the trends and the research data of the field.

This role was assumed by the journal Adult Education , which began to build an epistemological tradition. On the other hand, the journal had secured the support of leading scholars, such as Peter Jarvis, Collin Griffin, Alan Rogers, Phil Race, who contributed as scientific advisors. Moreover, the journal was not limited to the publication of articles, but had additional columns concerning book reviews, portraits of scholars, news and actions from the field, and emblematic texts that influenced the theory and practice of adult education.

Since then, the journal has remained steadfast in its goals. 49 issues were published continuously, every four months, which hosted after the review of an editorial board, a large number of papers of Greek scholars, as well as translations of articles, tributes to special topics, interviews, reviews, portraits.

However, things have changed over time. The Greek community of Adult Education expanded significantly and made its presence felt in the international arena with publications, presence in conferences, European programs, international collaborations. We felt that many abroad were interested in our views. At the same time, the need for the work of Greek scholars to be made public as widely as possible was created.

For these reasons, the journal, maintaining its basic principles, became from October 2021 bilingual (Greek – English) and open access, so that its content is disseminated to as many as possible, to achieve the attraction of high-level articles from all over the world and to increase the international recognition of authors.

The journal's title is now Adult Education: Critical Issues , identifying that the term "critical issues" signifies:

• redefinition or critical evaluation of problematic considerations, theoretical approaches or social phenomena

• questioning perceptions or practices that are taken for granted

• investigation of various, different, alternative controversial or opposing considerations

• investigation of unrecognized or undervalued considerations that are however interesting and provocative.

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• Français (France)
• Español (España)

Information

• Online ISSN: 2732-964X

The right to lifelong learning: Why adult education matters

There are 771 million illiterate adults globally today, according to UNESCO’s Institute of Statistics . And many more do not have the adequate skills and knowledge needed to navigate through our increasingly digital 21 st century demands. How is this still possible in this day and age?

While participation in adult education is improving in some places, access to learning opportunities remains profoundly unequal, and millions continue to be left out.  

From the pandemic to the climate crisis, to the digital revolution and mass movements of populations around the world, we know that today, more than ever, it is critical to ensure access to quality education and learning opportunities throughout life for everyone, everywhere.

Here’s what you need to know about adult education and learning.

Why is adult education crucial?

The speed of today’s changes calls for opportunities to learn throughout life, for individual fulfilment, social cohesion, and economic prosperity. Education can no longer be limited to a single period of one’s lifetime. Everyone, starting with the most marginalized and disadvantaged in our societies, must be entitled to learning opportunities throughout life both for employment and personal agency. 

In order to face our interconnected global challenges, we must ensure the right to lifelong learning by providing all learners - of all ages in all contexts - the knowledge and skills they need to realize their full potential and live with dignity.

This call was highlighted in UNESCO’s flagship Futures of Education report ‘ Reimagining our futures together: A new social contract for education ’ published in November 2021. The right to lifelong learning will also be echoed at the Transforming Education Summit in September 2022, building upon the UN Secretary-General’s call for formal recognition of a universal entitlement to lifelong learning and reskilling in his report “Our Common Agenda”.

What is the situation of adult learning and education today?

The main challenge for adult learning and education across the globe is to reach those who need it most. That is the core message of UNESCO’s latest Fifth Global Report on Adult Learning and Education (GRALE).

The report shows that while there is progress, notably in the participation of women, those who need adult education the most – disadvantaged and vulnerable groups such as Indigenous learners, rural populations, migrants, older citizens, people with disabilities or prisoners – are deprived of access to learning opportunities.

About 60% of countries reported no improvement in participation by people with disabilities, migrants or prisoners. 24% of countries reported that the participation of rural populations declined. And participation of older adults also decreased in 24% of the 159 surveyed countries.

How can we guarantee the right to lifelong learning?

The GRALE report details the crucial steps needed to guarantee the right to lifelong learning.

Greater participation and inclusion are key : Vulnerable groups, such as migrants, indigenous learners, older citizens and people with disabilities, are too often excluded from adult education and learning.

More financing is needed : Investment in adult learning and education is currently insufficient. Countries must live up to their commitment to seek investment of at least 6% of GNP in education, increasing the allocation to adult learning and education. There is wide diversity in terms of public funding devoted to adult learning and education, with only 22 out of 146 countries spending 4% or more of their public expenditure for education on adult learning and education, and 28 spending less than 0.4%.

Stronger policies are essential : Effective policies are key for adult learning and education across the globe. 60% of countries have improved policies since 2018. But we need further efforts to transition education systems to lifelong learning systems.

Progress in governance : Partnerships and cooperation between ministries, the private sector and civil society are essential for adult learning and education to thrive. Almost three-quarters of countries reported progress in governance, particularly in low-income and upper middle-income countries, and in both sub-Saharan Africa and Asia and the Pacific.

Improved quality : Effective teacher training and the professional standards for adult educators are essential to the quality of earning. Most countries reported progress in relation to quality of curricula, assessment and the professionalization of adult educators. Over two-thirds reported progress in pre-service and in-service training for educators, as well as in employment conditions, though this progress varies considerably by region and income group.

The importance of citizenship education : Responding to contemporary challenges, such as climate change and digitalization, demands citizens who are informed, trained and engaged, active, who recognize both their shared humanity and their obligations to other species and to the planet. Citizenship education is a key tool in this endeavour to empower learners to take action and help transform our collective future.

What has been the impact of COVID-19 on adult learning?       

During the COVID-19 pandemic, most countries reported rapid transitions to online, digital and distance learning or modifications of in-person learning arrangements. The widespread adoption of digital technology, including televisions, radios and telephones, has supported educational continuity for millions during lockdowns.

There are many examples of countries responding innovatively to the crisis to ensure the continuation of adult learning by adopting new policies and regulations to support this process, or by adjusting existing quality standards and curricula.

However, the COVID-19 pandemic has also caused some regions and population groups, particularly in parts of the world where resources and infrastructure are scarce, to lag even further behind.

How does UNESCO support adult education and learning?

The UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning strengthens the capacities of Member States to build effective and inclusive lifelong learning policies and systems, in line with Sustainable Development Goal 4. It aims to develop learning ecosystems that work across life, in every setting and benefit everyone through building capacity at local and national levels, strengthening partnerships, and offering data and knowledge.

To advance the world’s commitment to the right to lifelong learning, UNESCO is convening the Seventh International Conference on Adult Education (CONFINTEA VII) in Marrakech, Morocco from 15 to 17 June 2022. Participants from across the globe will come together to take stock of achievements in adult learning and education, discuss challenges, and develop a new framework for action to make adult learning and education a reality around the world. CONFINTEA VII is hosted by and co-organized with the Kingdom of Morocco.

• More about CONFINTEA VII
• Access the GRALE Report
• More about the UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning

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• Lifelong education
• Right to education

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Institute for Lifelong Learning

Fifth Global Report on Adult Learning and Education

Adult education does not reach those who need it most, says new unesco report.

The main challenge for adult learning and education across the globe is to reach those who need it most. This is the key message of UNESCO’s Fifth Global Report on Adult Learning and Education ( GRALE  5 ) which was published on 15 June 2022 at the Seventh International Conference on Adult Education in Marrakech , Morocco.

Download the fifth Global Report on Adult Learning and Education

Download the summary of the fifth Global Report on Adult Learning and Education

UNESCO’s report shows that while there is progress, notably in the participation of women, those who need adult education the most – disadvantaged and vulnerable groups such as Indigenous learners, rural populations, migrants, older citizens, people with disabilities or prisoners – are deprived of access to learning opportunities.

About 60% of countries reported no improvement in participation by people with disabilities, migrants or prisoners. 24% of countries reported that the participation of rural populations had declined. And participation of older adults also decreased in 24% of the 159 surveyed countries. GRALE 5 calls for a major change in Member States’ approach to adult learning and education backed by adequate investment to ensure that everyone has the opportunity to benefit from adult learning and education.

reported no improvement in participation by prisoners, people with disabilities, and migrants.

reported that the participation of rural populations declined.

reported a decrease in the participation of older adults.

“I urge governments and the international community to join our efforts and take action to ensure that the right to education is realized for everyone – no matter their age, who they are, or where they live. Due to rapid technological and social changes as well as massive global challenges that require engaged and critical citizens, reskilling and upskilling through adult learning and education must be routine. The ultimate twenty-first century skill is the ability to learn.”

A broader range of learners

Over half of countries reported an increase in participation in adult learning and education since 2018 but challenges remain. While participation of women and youth has considerably improved, overall participation in adult learning and education continues to be insufficient.

In 23% of the 159 countries that submitted data for GRALE 5, fewer than 1% of youth and adults aged 15 and above participate in education and learning programmes. Sub-Saharan Africa led the field by a wide margin with 59% of countries reporting that at least one in five adults benefit from learning. This figure drops to only 16% of countries in Latin America and the Caribbean and 25% in Europe. The high participation rate in Africa may be explained in part by a strong demand for adult literacy and second-chance education.

Quality is improving

Most countries reported progress in relation to quality of curricula, assessment and the professionalization of adult educators. Over two-thirds reported progress in pre-service and in-service training for ALE educators, as well as in employment conditions, though this progress varied considerably by region and income group. This advances the quality of adult education.

The Department of Education issued a memo in 2017 for the National Adoption and Implementation of the Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers (PPST). This action recognized the importance of professional standards in the continuing professional development and advancement of teachers, based on the principle of lifelong learning. Following release of the memorandum, the new orientations and trainings were rolled out in 2018 and 2019. A results-based performance management system for teaching personnel of the department was also updated and harmonized with the PPST.

Learn more (GRALE 5, p. 95)

Estonia reported that quality control measures are an important factor in developing and maintaining quality ALE curricula. The appropriateness and correspondence of the learning outcomes are assessed prior to registering them in the Estonian education information system by commissions and experts nominated by the Minister of Education and Research. Since 2015, the labour force and skills intelligence system has been used to analyse the needs of the labour market and the skills required for future economic development. Results of these analyses provide information on skill gaps, which then are incorporated into the curricula to keep it up to date. The effectiveness of the provision of these skills is overseen by the Estonian Quality Agency for Higher and Vocational Education.

Learn more (GRALE 5, p. 89)

Romania’s Second Chance programme supports adolescents, young people and adults from diverse backgrounds who have not attended or completed primary or secondary education. In order to ensure quality provision of the programme, the following elements were included:

a modular curriculum; a credit system for basic education; evaluation; certification and recognition of skills previously acquired by learners to ensure an individualized training programme; training programmes for teaching staff; provision of learning materials that meet learners’ needs.

Learn more (GRALE 5, p. 88)

Costa Rica reported on its holistic approach to promoting active and global citizenship through ALE. Where citizenship is concerned, diverse experiences demonstrate that making it part of a dedicated subject is not enough. Nor is it enough for citizenship to run through the curriculum. Citizenship education must guide the entire process of teaching and learning; therefore, it involves the whole community of educators and learners. For instance, there has to be consistency between theory and practice. Lectures cannot focus on ethics and civic values but be coupled with authoritarian teaching practices. Responsibility and rights are only learned if their conceptualization goes hand-in-hand with practice, and the practice itself is conceptualized. Hence, Costa Rica is redefining key relationships: adult-adolescent, teacher-student and school-community.

Learn more (GRALE 5, p. 99)

Peru reported approving curricular programmes for ALE as a result of work sessions with teachers and students. In particular, these programmes have been adapted to the characteristics, needs and expectations of adult learners. The changes included:

provision of materials; validation of content; development of competences which were identified by young adults and adult learners; scaffolding approaches to learning at beginner, intermediate and advanced levels; provision of training and guides for adult educators.

The main thematic areas covered by the curriculum are rights and citizenship, environment and health, territory and culture, and work and entrepreneurship.

Learn more (GRALE 5, p. 90)

Different ALE providers in Malaysia – from public and private universities and colleges to polytechnics and community colleges and training centres – conduct evaluations and pursue continuous quality improvement to promote learning outcomes from programming every semester, as required by the Malaysian Qualifications Agency (MQA). The MQA developed several guidelines for ALE quality, including:

The Code of Practice for Programme Accreditation (COPPA) Edition 2 (2018)

The Code of Practice for Programme Accreditation: Open and Distance Learning (COPPA:ODL) Second Edition (November 2019)

The Code of Practice for TVET Programme Accreditation (COPTPA) (October 2019)

Kenya reported launching its new Competency-Based Curriculum (CBC) in 2019. This aims to ensure that every learner is competent in seven core areas at the end of each learning cycle:

communication and collaboration; critical thinking and problem-solving; imagination and creativity; citizenship; learning to learn; self-efficacy; digital literacy.

The country’s National Education Sector Strategic Plan (NESSP) (2018–2022) provides equivalences and linkages between these competences and the formal curriculum for accreditation purposes. This means that informal learners have the opportunity to re-integrate into the formal system.

Learn more (Grale 5, p. 89)

Uganda reported progress in improving quality in ALE by relating literacy and numeracy knowledge and skills to the specific context, needs and interests of communities. This programme promotes integration as key to developing and implementing a multi-pronged, multidisciplinary approach to adult education and system enhancement. Through this mix, there are deliberate efforts by partners to mobilize various kinds of participation in ALE at all levels of implementation that involve different government departments. This approach promotes local community resource contribution in addition to financial support from different government departments.

Learn more (GRALE 5, p. 98)

Germany reported the launch of an online portal that uses ICT to promote literacy, second language learning and basic skills training. More than 6 million adults in Germany have a low level of literacy; for about half of these, German is not their mother tongue but their second language. Around 40% of migrants in Germany have difficulties reading and writing in the German language. The VHS learning portal (www.vhs-lernportal.de) provides a free online learning programme for German as a second language, literacy education and basic skills training. By 2020, the learning portal had 425,000 users (around 400,000 learners and 25,000 tutor-teachers). Importantly, this platform is free.

Learn more (GRALE 5, p. 93)

Citizenship education key for sustainable development

Responding to contemporary challenges, such as climate change and digitalization, demands citizens informed, trained and engaged, active, who recognise both their shared humanity and their obligations to other species and to the planet. Citizenship education is a key tool in this endeavour. In a special thematic chapter, GRALE 5 shows that close to three quarters (74%) of countries are developing or implementing policies in relation to citizenship education.

In Algeria, the Promoting of Education, Altruism and Civic Engagement (PEACE) project, involves Algerian university students and young leaders with special needs jointly addressing social problems within their communities. Project activities aim to achieve four primary objectives: enhance the capacity of Algerian universities and civil society organizations to collaboratively provide students with voluntary and career opportunities; provide project leadership, with planning and training on employable skills; increase student participation in community service projects; and maximize future programme sustainability by building on current government and donor initiatives, strengthening existing civil society networks, creating new partnerships and building local training capacity. 

Learn more (GRALE 5, p. 146)

The Association of Women and Society was founded in 1994 in Egypt to work in slum areas to support deprived people in exercising their basic rights. The association seeks to build effective models of partnership between public, private and non-government actors, to build coalitions and alliances at the national, regional and international level, to develop the values of active participation in the formulation and follow-up of policies, and to implement programmes and projects in the areas of education, training and lifelong learning as a key pillar in the process of advancement, development and sustainable community development.

Learn more (GRALE 5, p. 140)

The Civic Education Information Service for Female Iraqi Leaders programme was initiated in 2010 by Souktel (an Iraqi technology company) and Mercy Corps, an international development agency, as part of the agency’s Empowering Women Peace Builders project in Iraq. The aim of mobile services in the context of this programme is to connect female community members in leadership positions in rural regions of Iraq with peers or mentors in other parts of the country. 

The programme increases women’s awareness of how the government and other communities work, giving women in rural areas an equal opportunity to engage in political and social spheres. 

Learn more (GRALE 5, p. 141)

In an effort to promote access to education and general socioeconomic development, a group of Palestinian educators and social workers established the Trust of the Programme for Early Childhood, Family and Community Education (the Trust) in 1984 as a non-profit NGO with funding from the German government and several international foundations. The Trust primarily endeavours to: develop and maintain the Palestinian identity; improve quality of life for the Palestinian people; and promote social responsibility, community empowerment and development among Palestinians in Israel and the Palestinian territories through intergenerational and community/family-based educational and leadership training programmes. 

Learn more (GRALE 5, p. 150)

In India, in many rural villages, girls’ movements are restricted and forced marriage still exists. As part of a project supported by ASPBAE (the Asia South Pacific Association For Basic And Education) and UIL, a group of young, marginalized girls in villages have come to realize that they have the agency to learn, question and change their worlds. They have become Shodhini.

Shodhini is a Sanskrit word meaning female researcher and also the title of an action research project on rural girls education by the Youth-led Action Research (YAR) on girls’ education. The Shodhini not only learn about their own communities; they also reach out to girls in other villages so that they too can feel empowered to take life into their own hands. This process of reflection, analysis and action that the Shodhini go through, is the very heart of education for sustainable development and global citizenship education. 

Learn more (GRALE 5, p. 142)

In 2009, Thailand implemented an adult community education policy, led by the Office of Non-formal and Informal Education, to promote community learning centres and citizenship learning in community activities such as discussion forums, religious activities, art and culture programmes sports and democracy-related programmes. 

CLCs are a significant feature of learning opportunities in many Asian countries. According to the UNESCO Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education in Bangkok, ‘as many as 170,000 CLCs operate throughout the region, which is widely considered to have responded most rapidly and positively in recognizing the importance of institutionalizing lifelong learning at local level within easy reach of community members’(UIL and NILE, 2017).

Learn more (GRALE 5, p. 149)

The Global Citizenship Education and Learning Programme for Adults in the Islamic Republic of Mauritania was founded with the support of UNESCO, and as part of the National Capacity Development for Education Programme (CapED) to pilot programmes integrating GCED into literacy and non-formal education programmes. Literacy programmes are of particular relevance in Mauritania, where universal education has not yet been achieved and ALE is under-funded. The responsible Ministry of Islamic Affairs and Original Education, under the guidance of UNESCO, developed a plan for GCED and the prevention of extremism through education.

Learn more (GRALE 5, p. 130)

Germany’s new government included in its policy programme special provisions for vocational training. It is committed to supporting personally motivated lifelong learning, expanding the education grant (BAföG), opening up the subsistence allowance for part-time training, promoting further training at the same level of the German qualifications framework as well as for a second fully qualified training, significantly increasing the funding rates and allowances, and closing gaps in funding for BAföG.

Adult education centres and other non-profit educational institutions will be supported through investments in digital infrastructure. The recognition of competences acquired informally, non-formally or abroad will be simplified and accelerated. For people who are unemployed and entitled to basic income support, fully qualifying training courses are funded as part of further vocational training, regardless of their duration, leading to an upgrading of professional qualification.

Learn more (GRALE 5, p. 147)

Activities reported by Kenya to implement its strategic plan (2018–2020) to integrate ICT in teaching, learning and assessment of adult and continuing education (ACE) include:

Conducting a baseline survey of infrastructure across all levels of learning in ACE; conducting a needs assessment to identify gaps in integrating ICT in ACE curricula, and subsequently addressing these gaps in design and delivery; continually training ACE instructors and trainers on integrating ICT into teaching practice; developing and/or acquiring more ICT resources across all levels of ACE; using e-learning as a mode of delivery for ACE programmes; developing a monitoring and evaluation framework for assessing the impact of ICT integration on teaching-learning processes of ACE.

Learn more (GRALE 5, p. 138)

A new higher education qualification type, the Undergraduate Certificate (UC), was added to the Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) to support a short-course measure in the Australian Government’s COVID-19 higher education relief package. The UC was introduced to support workers affected by the pandemic through providing opportunities to reskill, upskill and improve employability. It qualifies individuals with knowledge and skills for further study, professional upskilling, employment and participation in lifelong learning. The UC is the first undergraduate shorter-form credential to be formally recognized under the AQF. It certifies completion of six months of full-time study towards an existing AQF qualification from Level 5 (higher education diploma) to Level 7 (bachelor’s degree).

Learn more (GRALE 5, p. 104)

The aim of Romania’s teaching-learning process on environmental protection, conservation and biodiversity for a school-based ‘second chance’ programme is to deepen understanding and help learners understand the importance of science-based sustainability. The curriculum covers the following elements:

Sources and consequences of air and water pollution and measures for prevention; ‘Feeding relationships’ with flora and fauna (including aquatic varieties) and activities of people in plains and mountain environments; Protecting natural and necessary resources of soils, rocks, minerals, fuels, wood and food; Forests, gardens and orchards as living environments and in relation to local communities and resources.

Learn more (GRALE 5, p. 156)

Increase in adult learning and education financing needed

GRALE 5 shows that much more needs to be done to achieve the level of investment required for adult learning and education to realise fully its contribution to the Sustainable Development Goals. There is wide divergence in terms of public funding devoted to adult learning and education, with 22 out of 146 countries spending 4% or more of their public expenditure for education on adult learning and education, and 28 spending less than 0.4%. While the COVID-19 pandemic has put domestic budgets under further pressure, under-investment in adult learning and education hits socially disadvantaged the hardest.

The Government of Malaysia increased scholarships, incentives and budget allocations for ALE and lifelong learning programmes offered to specific target groups. In particular, spending was aimed at improving ICT for provision for adults in general; vouchers to young adults to support TVET and reskilling; funding for Indigenous peoples to enhance literacy and entrepreneurial skills; and cross-departmental budgets to support adult learning in fields related to health and social protection.

Learn more (GRALE 5, p. 66)

Latvia identified investment in low-skilled youth and adults as a priority in a number of policy documents and support programmes, including the Education Development Guidelines 2014–2020 and the National Development Plan.

There is an emphasis on helping young people aged 15 to 24 to remain in education. The total indicated funding for this work is EUR 37.5 million.

A programme called ‘Implementation of initial vocational education programmes as a part of the Youth Guarantee’ aims to help young people aged 17 to 29 obtain professional qualifications.

A project called ‘Know and Do’ aims to improve the motivation of young people aged 15 to 29 who are not in education, employment or training (NEET). 

Learn more (GRALE 5, p. 67)

Mauritius reported that its Human Resource Development Council (HRDC) is responsible for ‘look[ing] after and promot[ing] the development of the labour force in Mauritius in line with the requirements of a fast-growing economy’ and offers various schemes and projects that prioritize training for unemployed graduates. For example, the Graduate Training for Employment Scheme (GTES) aims to enhance the employability of unemployed graduates by providing them with skills as per the requirements of an evolving job market. This scheme ensures the training and placement of unemployed graduates for a period not exceeding one year, with the possibility of employment. The HRDC invested the equivalent of approximately USD 130,000 for the training and placement of these graduates in 2017–2018. 

Learn more (GRALE 5, p. 68)

Non-formal ALE receives 0.6% of the national budget allocated to the social development sector in Uganda. In absolute numbers, the government has been allocating 2 billion Ugandan shillings (approx. USD 500,000) annually to this sector to implement adult literacy activities. Funds for central government activities are disbursed to the Ministry of Gender, Labour and Social Development, while funds for field activities are transferred to local governments under a single consolidated social development sector grant or fund. Yet, according to Uganda’s reporting, information regarding the overall funding of adult literacy and education is problematic, scattered between several ministries, such as education, health, social development and agriculture. In addition, development partners can contribute to funding of government activities on literacy and basic skills, particularly for disadvantaged populations. 

The Government of Jordan allocates direct funding to different groups in its budgets for adult learning and education. For example, funding to provide appropriate services to elderly men and women focuses on those with disabilities and special needs. 

Jordan’s Ministry of Education allocates a budget for non-formal education programmes, including adult education and literacy programming, for an evening studies programme, and for a culture promotion programme for school dropouts. For the unemployed, the Ministry of Labour holds a budget for the provision of training opportunities for reintegration into the labour market. Finally, the government also supports education and training programmes for Syrian refugees. These programmes are funded primarily by external sources.

About the Global Report on Adult Learning and Education

Published by the UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning , the Global Report on Adult Learning and Education monitors the extent to which UNESCO Member States put their international commitments regarding adult learning and education into practice. The reports combine survey data, policy analysis and case studies to provide policy-makers and practitioners with sound recommendations and examples of good practice. Five reports have been published since 2009.

About the Seventh International Conference on Adult Education

From 15 to 17 June 2022, participants from across the globe came together for the Seventh International Conference on Adult Education (CONFINTEA VII) in Marrakech, Morocco. They took stock of achievements in adult learning and education, discussed challenges, and developed a new framework for action to make adult learning and education a reality around the world. CONFINTEA VII was hosted by the Kingdom of Morocco and co-organized with UNESCO.

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America’s Adult Education System Is Broken. Here’s How Experts Say We Can Fix It.

Experts say that more money is critical to improving the national system. many states have developed creative solutions in spite of their limited funding., series: the right to read: examining the toll of america’s literacy crisis.

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They never got the help they needed with learning disabilities. Or they came to this country without the ability to read English. Or they graduated from schools that failed to teach them the most crucial skills.

For a number of sometimes overlapping reasons, 48 million American adults struggle to read basic English, according to the National Center for Education Statistics. That may leave them unable to find and keep a decent job, navigate the signage on city streets, follow medical instructions and vote . They’re vulnerable to scams and face stigma and shame.

The main remedy available is adult education: free classes where they can improve their reading and earn a high school credential.

But the infrastructure for adult education is profoundly inadequate, a ProPublica investigation found — and, as the nation’s persistently low literacy rates reveal, the government’s efforts haven’t done enough to address the problem. About 500 counties across the nation are hot spots where nearly a third of adults struggle to read basic English. This contributes to disproportionate underemployment. In communities with lower literacy, there is often less economic investment, a smaller tax base and fewer resources to fund public services.

“It’s in our best interest to make sure that, regardless of why people didn’t get an education the first time around, that they get one now,” said Amanda Bergson-Shilcock, a senior fellow at the National Skills Coalition who focuses on adult education and workforce policy.

ProPublica interviewed experts, students and educators about some of the best ideas for improving adult education. While many experts have said that more money is critical to improving the national system, many states have developed innovations in spite of their limited funding. There are ways to help adults overcome low literacy, and making that help more widely accessible would solve larger problems, both for individuals and for their communities.

Give adults with the lowest literacy skills more attention.

Strict federal standards prompt states to push adult students to get a high school credential as fast as possible. Students who need more time can flounder in such a system. “It’s so hard to get students at the basic level. They are lacking so much,” said Andrew Strehlow, who directs adult education for Rankin County School District in Mississippi.

The expectation of steady academic gains can be challenging for adult students, particularly for those who have not learned in a classroom in more than a decade. “If you are reading at the sixth-grade level and someone said you have three months to pack in six years of high school because that’s the end of the program, realistically, how many will do it? None,” said Diane Renaud, who directs the St. Vincent and Sarah Fisher Center in Detroit. Research has shown that some programs even resort to pushing out struggling students from their classes.

Some programs have focused on providing students with more one-on-one support. The Las Vegas-Clark County Library District offers each student the chance to work with a coach who calls and encourages them as they work toward a high school credential. Jill Hersha, the library’s literacy services manager, said many of the program’s students had worked in the hospitality industry for years and lost their jobs. “But they hadn’t been in school in forever,” she said. Coaches help them define their goals and move forward, step by step.

Increase the availability and flexibility of classes, especially in rural areas.

ProPublica found that large swaths of the country lack adult education classes, and residents must travel dozens of miles to enroll in programs. In Mississippi, about 1 in 5 counties lacks a state-run program. In some parts of rural Nevada, people must take virtual classes or drive up to 70 miles, said Meachell LaSalle Walsh, who directs adult education at Great Basin College in Elko. Even in urban areas, inflexible class scheduling may make it difficult for people to attend.

To increase accessibility, some states have developed partnerships to ensure programming is available across vast areas. A decade ago, after a state report found its vast adult education system uncoordinated and fragmented, California reconfigured it into regional consortia that could better assess local needs and collaborate with community groups. In each of the 71 regions, local community colleges and school districts work together to align their teaching materials, collect data on students across programs and make sure they offer distinct services. The new structure helps ensure students can access programs, regardless of where they live. “The idea is to work together to meet the needs of the students and the workforce within that region,” said Carolyn Zachry, the state’s adult education director.

Train educators on how to work with adults with disabilities.

Experts estimate that as many as half of adult students have learning disabilities, which are sometimes undiagnosed. Many programs don’t have resources to work with these students. “They are horribly underserved,” said Monica McHale-Small, education director for the Learning Disabilities Association of America. Nationally, less than 5% of adult teachers are certified in special education, according to federal data . Last year, in the entire state of Tennessee, there was only one teacher for adults who was certified in special education.

Some states have developed centralized programs to show teachers how to work with adults with disabilities. Minnesota funds the Physical And Nonapparent Disability Assistance program, which gives workshops and consults with programs on best practices. “Individuals who have disabilities, especially the hidden disabilities, you wouldn’t know unless they disclosed it, and they may not have ever even been diagnosed,” said Wendy Sweeney, who manages the organization. “It’s important that we make sure the teachers have some strategies to work with a student in their class and help them with their learning.”

Invest more money in adult education programs.

The federal government provided about $675 million to states for adult education last year, a figure that has been stagnant for more than two decades, when adjusted for inflation. And while states are also required to contribute a minimum amount, ProPublica found large gaps in what they spend. Lower funding leads to smaller programs with less reach: Less than 3% of eligible adults receive services. “When there’s no awareness by these legislators at the state or federal level, they just don’t put the extra money in,” said Michele Diecuch, programs director at the nonprofit ProLiteracy.

This year, Democratic Rep. Bobby Scott of Virginia introduced a bill to expand access and increase the federal adult education budget by $300 million over the next five years. The House passed the bill this spring, but it’s hung up in the Senate and unlikely to become law anytime soon. Some states have also increased their funding for adult education in recent years. After cutting more than a million dollars from adult education in 2021, Georgia chose to restore that money in its upcoming state budget. It also raised pay for full-time state employees by $5,000, which helps some but not all adult education teachers. State lawmakers often need a big push from advocates and educators to increase funding, said Sharon Bonney, chief executive officer of the Coalition on Adult Basic Education. “Talk to your governor about the value of the work that you do, because when governors understand that they’re much more likely to fund it,” she said.

Increase teacher pay and add more full-time teachers.

Most adult education teachers work part time or are volunteers, leading to high turnover and inconsistent instruction. In Tennessee, more than a third of staff teachers are uncertified, and more than 80% only work part time. (Uncertified teachers must take training modules on adult education, according to the state’s labor and workforce department.) Leslie Travis, adult education coordinator at the Tennessee College of Applied Technology in Athens, dreams about what she could do with more full-time teachers. “I could open a whole lot more classes,” she said. “I need to hire at least six teachers right now.” Travis landed on a less-than-ideal solution to avoid wait-listing students: crowding more than 25 students into classrooms. Similarly, in Nevada, almost all adult education teachers work part time and half of them are uncertified. “Even in Reno and Las Vegas, they’re having trouble staffing,” said Nancy Olsen, the state’s adult education programs supervisor.

Some states have found ways to provide teachers with professional development: Massachusetts and Minnesota have “train the trainer” programs, where experienced teachers train newer ones. In Arkansas, which commits a larger share of funding than other states, all teachers must be certified in education and full-time teachers must be specifically certified to teach adults or working toward a license — sharpening their ability to support nontraditional students. “It really makes a difference when you have teachers who have gone through training of how to teach adult learners of different levels,” said Arkansas’ adult education director, Trenia Miles.

Help students overcome barriers that inhibit them from attending class.

Since she dropped out of high school in 11th grade to care for her newborn daughter, Mississippi-native Rolonda McNair, 27, has long wanted to obtain a high school credential. “You’re not going to get a good paying job without having it,” she said. But between work and child care responsibilities, she could not set aside enough time to attend class. To restart her education this past summer, McNair had to stop working full time and move in with her mother, who could watch her children while she was in school. Many adult learners face similar barriers , from a lack of steady child care or transportation to job inflexibility. Educators are increasingly recognizing the importance of addressing these obstacles.

Mississippi has created the MIBEST initiative, providing some students with support like child care, transportation, food assistance, help with testing fees and career counseling. But the program relies on temporary philanthropic funding and mostly directs support to students who enter at the highest levels. “We have never had enough funding to offer that level of support to every single person,” said Nikitna Barnes, an assistant director at the Mississippi Community College Board, which oversees adult education for the state.

Pay adults to return to the classroom.

Kathryn Iski, 56, entered a Nashville, Tennessee, adult education program last year as a beginner in both reading and math. Iski, who did not attend school as a child, studied for months and progressed multiple grade levels in reading. But this June, she had to stop after her job at a Target deli required her to work overtime. After more than three months, she fell behind in her studies and had to work hard to catch up. Adult students like Iski often must skip classes when they conflict with work schedules. They may fall behind and take longer to achieve their goals.

Some of the most innovative programs combine adult education and actual jobs to encourage attendance; experts say these opportunities are rare because of insufficient federal and state funds. ProPublica’s story highlighted Detroit’s Skills for Life, which pays residents to return to school two days a week and pays them to work city jobs the other three days. Last year, in Georgia, DeKalb County’s sanitation department offered employees without high school diplomas an opportunity to take virtual classes on company time. The department also covered fees for credential exams. “We had 100% retention,” said Meghan McBride, who leads adult education at Georgia Piedmont Technical College and helped start the workplace program.

Open education programs to all students, regardless of immigration status.

A handful of states, including Arizona and Georgia, prevent adult education programs from using state funding to serve undocumented people. Arizona denies enrollment to hundreds of people each year because they did not provide evidence of citizenship or legal residence in the country, as required by a law passed by voters in 2006. In Georgia, which passed a law in 2010 requiring programs to verify that applicants are in the country legally, three federally funded groups that serve mainly immigrants and refugees are denied state funding because they allow undocumented students. Arizona’s Department of Education declined to comment on the policy’s impact on enrollment or programs. Georgia’s assistant commissioner of adult education, Cayanna Good, said undocumented immigrants without programs to serve them are falling through the cracks.

In these states, undocumented immigrants who want to learn English, obtain a high school credential or improve their reading skills have few choices, and even fewer that are free. This decision comes with a price, according to adult education expert Bergson-Shilcock. “The ‘price’ in this case is not only lost earnings and tax revenue from less-educated workers, but the human cost of creating a two-tiered society in which some people are explicitly being told that their lives and aspirations are not worth investing in,” she said. “The immediate cost of educating a person is far cheaper than the long-run social costs of not educating them.”

Weave together technical and academic instruction to prepare people for jobs.

In the 2000s, adult students in Washington were, at best, obtaining high school credentials, but they were not progressing to further education or jobs that paid a living wage. “We were hemorrhaging people up and down the pipeline,” said Will Durden, a state adult education director. The programs were poorly connected to college classes or work credential programs. “You’re spending all this time learning math that doesn’t seem relevant, that doesn’t seem like it’s going to help you get ahead in life,” he said. “So students drop out.”

Washington pioneered the I-BEST program, which allows adults without high school diplomas to pursue academic skills and job training at the same time. Two teachers — one providing reading and math skills, and the other job training — work in tandem, putting lessons into context and allowing adults to advance more quickly. Recent studies show I-BEST students were more likely to attain a technical credential than adult students who did not go through the program. It has been replicated in other places, including Mississippi.

Protect a right to literacy for school children.

Experts say the best way to improve literacy rates is to teach children to read proficiently before they become adults. Even though all state constitutions include a right to an education , the U.S. Constitution does not — although 170 other countries affirm that right in their constitutions. Without this commitment, children and their families have struggled to hold schools accountable for appalling proficiency rates.

In recent years, a handful of lawsuits have challenged whether children have a right to literacy. In 2016, a group of Detroit students sued the state, claiming its failure to provide an adequate education left a district serving almost exclusively low-income children of color struggling to read, in violation of the 14th Amendment. “Literacy is fundamental to participation in public and private life and is the core component in the American tradition of education,” plaintiffs said in their complaint .

A federal judge initially dismissed the case, agreeing with the state’s position that “access to literacy is not a fundamental right.” Two years later, in 2020, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the 6th Circuit reversed part of the ruling , declaring students should have a “fundamental right to a basic minimum education, meaning one that can provide them with a foundational level of literacy.” Michigan settled the case about a month later, promising $94 million for literacy programs in Detroit’s schools.

Students across the country are fighting to hold states accountable to their constitutional commitments. In California in 2017, students sued for a right to literacy, arguing that it was essential to a person’s ability to participate in democracy. They eventually settled with the state. Recent litigation in Minnesota and North Carolina has also argued for access to a quality education.

“There is no defense of a system that fails to teach kids how to read,” said Mark Rosenbaum, the attorney for students in both the Detroit and California cases. “You deny students access to literacy, it’s the most effective strategy you can develop to disenfranchise communities.”

The Unequal Effects of School Closings

As more families opt for charter and private schools or homeschooling in the wake of the pandemic, cities around the country are shuttering schools. The effects fall hardest on majority-Black schools and special-needs students.

by Alec MacGillis , Aug. 26, 5 a.m. EDT

A 10-Year-Old Pointed a Finger Gun. The Principal Kicked Him Out of His Tennessee School for a Year.

A 2023 state law requires a yearlong expulsion for any student who threatens mass violence on school property. But some students have been kicked out even when school officials determined that the threat was not credible.

by Aliyya Swaby , Aug. 23, 6:30 a.m. EDT

Cookie & Zo’e: A Georgia Family Wrestles With School Choice 60 Years After the Start of Desegregation

In a new ProPublica short documentary, Samaria “Cookie” Mitcham Bailey and her great-granddaughter Zo’e Johnson reflect on their experiences in a town where schools are still largely segregated.

by Liz Moughon , Aug. 22, 5:05 a.m. EDT

In a Town Full of Segregation Academies, One Black Family Grapples With the Best School Choice for Their Daughter

Schools in Macon, Georgia, are still largely segregated. Zo’e Johnson’s family is torn over whether they can afford for her to stay at her mostly white private school — and whether the cost makes sense.

by Jennifer Berry Hawes , photography by Sarahbeth Maney , Aug. 22, 5 a.m. EDT

Neglect at Boarding School for Autistic Youth Left a Student With Vision Loss, Lawsuit Alleges

Washington education officials have told public districts in the state not to send new students to Shrub Oak International School in New York, citing ProPublica’s reporting and a visit to the campus.

by Jodi S. Cohen and Jennifer Smith Richards , July 26, 5 a.m. EDT

School Vouchers Were Supposed to Save Taxpayer Money. Instead They Blew a Massive Hole in Arizona’s Budget.

Arizona, the model for voucher programs across the country, has spent so much money paying private schoolers’ tuition that it’s now facing hundreds of millions in budget cuts to critical state programs and projects.

by Eli Hager , July 16, 6 a.m. EDT

Trump Company CEO’s Unexplained Meeting With Balkans Leader Raises Specter of New Conflict

Devin Nunes, the former congressman who runs the company behind Truth Social, traveled to North Macedonia as former President Trump vies to once again shape U.S. foreign policy.

by Justin Elliott , Robert Faturechi and Alex Mierjeski , Sept. 12, 6 a.m. EDT

One of the Nation’s Largest Auto Lenders Told Customers, “We’re Here to Help.” Then It Took Their Money and Their Cars.

CarMax partner Exeter Finance makes high-interest loans to people with troubled financial histories. It allows borrowers to skip payments but often adds thousands of dollars in new charges — costs that customers say Exeter didn’t tell them about.

by Ryan Gabrielson and Byard Duncan , Sept. 12, 5 a.m. EDT

“I Don’t Want to Die”: Needing Mental Health Care, He Got Trapped in His Insurer’s Ghost Network

Ravi Coutinho bought a health insurance plan thinking it would deliver on its promise of access to mental health providers. But even after 21 phone calls and multiple hospitalizations, no one could find him a therapist.

by Max Blau , illustrations by Vanessa Saba , special to ProPublica , Sept. 8, 6:05 a.m. EDT

Trump Built a National Debt So Big That It’ll Weigh Down the Economy for Years

The “King of Debt” promised to reduce the national debt — then his tax cuts made it surge. Add in the pandemic, and he oversaw the third-biggest deficit increase of any president.

by Allan Sloan , ProPublica, and Cezary Podkul for ProPublica , Jan. 14, 2021, 5 a.m. EST

Oregon’s Largest Natural Gas Company Said It Was Going Green. It Sells as Much Fossil Fuel as Before.

NW Natural told Oregonians it had a new source of clean energy: renewable natural gas. Industry documents obtained by ProPublica reveal how the company has, for years, perpetuated its core fossil fuel business while painting a picture of going green.

by McKenzie Funk , Sept. 13, 5 a.m. EDT

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Performance Assessments for Adult Education: Exploring the Measurement Issues: Report of a Workshop (2002)

Chapter: 6 challenges in adult education, 6 challenges in adult education.

T he discussion during the workshop highlighted a number of key challenges that must be addressed when performance assessments are used for accountability in the federal adult education system: (1) defining the domain of knowledge, skills, and abilities in a field where there is no single definition of the domain; (2) using performance assessments for multiple purposes and different audiences; (3) having the fiscal resources required for assessment development, training, implementation, and maintenance when the federal and state monies under the Workforce Investment Act (WIA) of 1998 are limited for such activities; (4) having sufficient time for assessment and learning opportunities given the structure of adult education programs and students’ limited participation; and (5) developing the expertise needed for assessment development, implementation, and maintenance. This chapter discusses these challenges and their implications for alternatives identified by workshop presenters.

DEFINING A COMMON DOMAIN OF KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS, AND ABILITIES

Varied frameworks.

One very critical stage in the development of performance assessments is defining the domain of knowledge, skills, and abilities that students will be expected to demonstrate. In her remarks, Mari Pearlman said that in

order to have reliable and valid assessments to compare students’ outcomes across classes, programs, and states, a common domain must be used as the basis for the assessment. This poses a challenge to the field of adult education because, as several speakers pointed out, there is no consensus on the content to be assessed. As Ron Pugsley, Office of Vocational and Adult Education of the Department of Education (DOEd), reminded participants, Title II of the WIA specifies the core measures that states must use in reporting student progress (see Table 2-1 ), but the content underlying these measures is not operationally defined in the same way by the states and sometimes not even by all the programs within a state. In many testing programs, there is a document (called a framework) that provides a detailed outline of the content and skills to be assessed. But on the national level, no such document exists for adult education, and few states have defined the universe of content for their adult basic education programs. Hence, the extent to which specific literacy and numeracy skills are taught in a program can vary greatly depending on the characteristics of the student population and available staff.

To address this variation in instructional content, the National Institute for Literacy (NIFL) began the Equipped for the Future (EFF) initiative in 1993. Sondra Stein explained that NIFL used the results of its survey of 1,500 adults to identify the themes of family, community, work, and lifelong learning as the main purposes for which adults enroll in adult basic education programs (see Figure 6-1 for the EFF standards). NIFL then specified content standards for each theme and is now in the process of developing performance assessments aligned with the content standards. Some states (Maine, Ohio, Oregon, Tennessee, and Washington) have adopted the EFF framework and are working with NIFL in the assessment development process, while others are in the process of developing their own assessments. Although EFF represents an important movement toward common content for adult basic education programs, not all states have adopted its framework at this time.

Comparability of Performance Assessments

As discussed in Chapter 5 , workshop presenters described two approaches for identifying performance assessment tasks: the critical indicator approach and the domain sampling approach. Both approaches require delineation of the domain. In order for results from one version of the assessment to be comparable to results from another version, there needs to

FIGURE 6-1 EFF Standards for Adult Literacy and Lifelong Learning

SOURCE: NIFL, 2002.

be a common domain with agreed-upon critical skills and knowledge and types of tasks that allow students to demonstrate these skills and knowledge. While these two approaches may be feasible on a limited level, such as in a program or within a state, it will be much more difficult to apply them across states or nationally.

USING PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENTS FOR MULTIPLE PURPOSES

Throughout the workshop, participants enumerated the varied uses for assessments in adult basic education: for diagnostic purposes, to meet

accountability requirements, to provide feedback to students and/or teachers, and for program evaluation. As Pamela Moss explained, different purposes bring different kinds of validity issues, and David Thissen, Stephen Dunbar, and Jim Impara noted that it is difficult, if not impossible to develop one assessment that adequately serves such varied purposes. However, several speakers talked about ways performance assessments might be developed to serve the purpose of the NRS (National Reporting System). As suggested by Mark Reckase, Mari Pearlman, and others, the structured portfolio has the potential of serving the dual purposes of meeting accountability requirements and providing feedback to students. But for it to do so, the menu of content and tasks must be broad enough to meet the accountability requirements for the domain and to have enough examples to provide meaningful feedback to students.

Computer-based assessment could also serve the two purposes, and it has the advantage of providing rapid feedback to the student. According to Bob Bickerton and Donna Miller-Parker, use of computer-based assessment in adult basic education has been limited because of accessibility issues, costs, and training of staff. Henry Braun cautioned that it would be important to determine the types of learners for whom this modality would be appropriate before initiating its use for accountability purposes.

One factor that will need to be considered when performance assessments are used for accountability is the process of calibrating the performance assessments to the scale used for the NRS. Wendy Yen and Braun emphasized that a true calibration requires that the assessments be based on the same domains. While the developers of the tests with benchmark scores specified in the NRS attempted to calibrate their tests to the levels in ABE or ESL (depending on the test), various workshop presenters said that the calibration process was not technically accurate. Yen observed that these tests “have different content and have been developed under different criteria.” She said that these conditions are not sufficient for the more stringent linking procedures such as equating or calibration. These linking procedures require equivalence of test content and examination of item and test statistics, among other things. Yen also noted that several National Research Council (NRC) reports, such as Uncommon Measures: Equivalence and Linkage Among Educational Tests (1999c) and Embedding Questions: The Pursuit of a Common Measure in Uncommon Tests (1999a), have addressed the issue of linking results from different assessments. She observed that linking issues will need to be addressed when performance assessments are used to measure students’ movement on the NRS levels. She

cautioned that in order for multiple performance assessments to be developed and calibrated to the NRS, they would need to measure the same domains. If they do not, then the less rigorous process of social moderation could be used to ascertain the match between scores on the assessments and the NRS levels. However, several workshop participants questioned whether social moderation was sufficiently rigorous for use in a high-stakes environment.

HAVING THE REQUIRED FISCAL RESOURCES

Assessment development and staff training.

As described in Chapter 2 , states have limited funding to spend on assessment development, staff training, implementation, and maintenance. Several presenters emphasized both the importance of having adequate development and training processes to support the creation of quality performance assessments, and the substantial cost of these activities. In his presentation, Reckase estimated that the cost for development of a performance assessment system could total $1.5 to $2 million.

Some of the expenses are one-time costs and some recur with each administration. One-time costs are those associated with initial implementation of the assessment. Recurring costs are the expenses for ongoing item or task development, administering the test, and scoring examinees’ responses. As mentioned earlier in this report, the cost for scoring responses to performance assessments or constructed-response questions is substantially higher than that for scoring selected-response questions. In addition, costs for the development of these assessments can be higher. Tasks used on performance assessments are easily memorized and, unlike selected-response items, often cannot be reused. Administration costs can also be hefty, given the time, materials, and resources required to administer performance assessments.

Eduardo Cascallar estimated that a performance assessment of language ability that he developed cost $120 per administration. Judy Alamprese noted that the current cost for an external degree program is approximately $2,000 per student, and Mark Moody stated that it is approximately $60 per student (for 180,000 students) for Maryland’s MSPAP, and this amount doesn’t cover the cost of test administration. States’ Leadership funding under WIA, which has ranged from $100,000 to $7.5 million per state per year (with most states at the lower end of this range), provides the money

states use for development and training activities. Because the federal allotment is the sole funding for these activities for most states, it is unlikely that individual states can afford substantial costs for implementing a performance assessment program. In light of this, workshop presenters suggested other options, such as the formation of consortia in which states work together or in conjunction with publishers to develop and score performance assessments. These ideas are further discussed in Chapter 7 . However, the challenge to fiscal resources also extends to the administration of these assessments, especially when the national average expenditure per student in adult education programs is $374, and the 10 states with the lowest expenditures averaged only $156 per student (program year 1999).

Assessment Implementation and Maintenance

The creation of performance assessments, including specifying content domains and developing scoring rubrics as well as providing staff training, is only a portion of the cost of using these assessments. Implementing a performance assessment system and maintaining and refurbishing assessments are ongoing costs that programs must take into consideration. John Comings estimated that adult education programs could afford to spend only about $50 per student for assessment; this is inadequate for implementing a performance assessment system, according to Richard Hill, Impara, Reckase, and other speakers, given the experience of the National External Diploma Program in adult education or the K-12 system. While the presenters pointed out that there were cost differences in using the various alternative approaches to performance assessment that were suggested, none of the other assessments would cost as little as $50 per student.

Cascallar and other speakers observed that, in addition to implementation costs, there are costs associated with updating and revisions, particularly if the assessment is to meet the desire of many program staffs to have assessments that are dynamic. These updates include new development to keep the assessment current, refining scoring rubrics (particularly in the use of structured portfolios), and updating training manuals. The costs for these activities would need to be subsidized by the states or budgeted as part of the ABE programs’ operational costs. In addition, there are costs associated with training staff to administer performance assessments and providing the necessary materials and other resources. A final but important cost is associated with external review of the assessments

and the system. Under the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, the federal government has taken the lead in the evaluation of K-12 assessment systems. (Massachusetts is one of many states that also hire external reviewers.) Kit Viator emphasized the value of external review, commenting that it is important to let others have access to materials and come to their own independent conclusions about the strengths and weaknesses of the program.

HAVING SUFFICIENT TIME FOR ASSESSMENT AND LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES

Time is one aspect of the adult basic education service delivery system that poses significant challenges for the use of performance assessment. Time is a limited commodity for most adult education students. As mentioned in the overview and by a number of presenters, adult education students spend a limited amount of time in instruction, and they have limited time for carrying out performance assessments. Speakers queried whether this amount of time provided a sufficient “opportunity to learn.” If the instructional time is not sufficient for learning, then the assessment may not be a reliable test of students’ educational progress. The speakers noted that student persistence in regularly attending classes and completing a course of study is a critical factor for most adult education programs. Lack of student persistence appears to be a characteristic of the system that is unaffected by attempts to remedy it.

In suggesting alternative ways to construct performance assessments, Reckase described the challenge of addressing the “information channel” in which the goal is to assess as much skill and knowledge as possible within a specified amount of time. As stated earlier, Reckase estimated that 50 to 100 selected-response items can be administered to an adult in an hour, while no more than 10 performance assessments can be given in the same period of time. With the current levels of student persistence, students’ patterns of participation in adult basic education, and the limited number of hours that some programs operate, the amount of time required for adminstration is a critical factor to consider when state and local administrators are determining the feasibility of using performance assessment.

DEVELOPING EXPERTISE

A refrain heard throughout the workshop was the need to have trained and qualified individuals for all phases of performance assessment development, administration, and scoring. A number of presenters observed that the technical expertise of most adult basic education program staff is not sufficient for them to undertake assessment development. Assessment development is a technical field with stringent guidelines, and several presenters suggested that states and programs work collaboratively with psychometricians in the assessment development process. One possible role for adult education staff in the development process might be to provide the applications of content that can be used in the development of assessment tasks.

Another strategy might be to use assessment approaches that minimize the requirement for trained staff to administer and score the assessments, such as computer-based assessment. When both the administration and the scoring can be done electronically, staff do not have to perform these functions. If program staff are to be responsible for assessment administration and scoring, then experts are needed to provide professional development on a periodic basis. All of the activities involved in developing, administering, and scoring performance assessment systems require not only expertise but also time and fiscal resources.

In the United States, the nomenclature of adult education includes adult literacy, adult secondary education, and English for speakers of other languages (ESOL) services provided to undereducated and limited English proficient adults. Those receiving adult education services have diverse reasons for seeking additional education. With the passage of the WIA, the assessment of adult education students became mandatory-regardless of their reasons for seeking services. The law does allow the states and local programs flexibility in selecting the most appropriate assessment for the student. The purpose of the NRC's workshop was to explore issues related to efforts to measure learning gains in adult basic education programs, with a focus on performance-based assessments.

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Teachers as Adult Learners: Their need to Transform

• ADULT EDUCATION Critical Issues 3(1):26-38

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Adult Education, transformation and social justice

Education + Training

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Article publication date: 3 August 2018

Issue publication date: 3 August 2018

Duckworth, V. , Husband, G. and Smith, R. (2018), "Adult Education, transformation and social justice", Education + Training , Vol. 60 No. 6, pp. 502-504. https://doi.org/10.1108/ET-07-2018-210

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Adult education, transformation and social justice

Our drive for editing this journal is underpinned by the premise: “Education can be empowering, it can be disempowering – but it is never neutral”.

Critics of the dominant model of education argue that the education curriculum across nations has a strong utilitarian function, which selects and distributes dominant education in different ways to different social groups, reproducing class inequalities which fail to address issues of power relations in the learners’ lives. We see, for example, the hidden curriculum of formal schooling serving and reflecting the social, economic and moral hierarchy that drives the needs of neo-liberal global capitalism, a framework that is closely bound to ideologies that stem from production and economic values. Where the dominant discourse, political focus and language of policy highlight only the performative function of education in getting work or securing “better” work, the broader values of education aligned to the value of the individual beyond economic productivity are lost. It is within this context that educational systems shape identities and notions of worth and indeed lack of worth. Within this performative landscape humanistic, transformative and holistic visions of lifelong learning for all have been marginalised, silenced and neglected.

In this special issue (SI) there is a deep recognition that the understanding of the nature of transformative learning must be contextually based and needs to address all the domains of students’ lives, not simply their learning journeys. The papers presented provide a critical spotlight to illuminate the relevance of structural inequality, which includes class, gender and ethnicity on the learners’ trajectories, exposing its continued importance in the era of individualising modernity. For example, the concept of capitals and how they are accrued and valued are important in facilitating a more detailed analysis of different relations of power which can remain hidden and implicit in concepts such as “individualism”, “choice” and “mobility” ( Giddens, 1991 ; Beck, 1992 ; Duckworth, 2013 ; Ade-Ojo and Duckworth, 2017 ; Duckworth and Smith, 2017 ).

The authors of the articles in this SI bring transformative education out of the shadows and offer vivid critical spaces that cross nations, contexts and time. They give voice to the silenced, drawing us into the power of Adult Education to open up real opportunity for socially just educational experiences which challenge inequality and barriers in learners’ lives, their families and their diverse communities.

Clancy and Holford begin this extended SI in their vital illumination of how adult access courses taken in the residential context have the potential to intensify the learning process, often leading to personal transformation in both short courses and longer. Key findings include the powerful role residential education plays in accelerating and deepening learning experiences, particularly for adults who have faced substantial personal and societal challenges and are returning to education. The paper also opens up the importance of the locality of the colleges, all in historic settings, and how they confer feelings of worth, security and sanctuary; the staff support – pastoral and academic, the bespoke facilities and private rooms are vital enabling mechanisms of transformation. Next, we turn to Peart’s ethnographic study which examines black male students’ perceptions of further education (FE) and provides a lens to investigate how their experiences compare to their experiences of statutory education. This paper provides rich insights to support teachers and managers at all organisational levels in FE (and in schools) to review their provision and consider adopting approaches that may help to enhance black students’ educational journeys.

Crossing the seas, we next enter India to explore a framework for Inclusive Digital Literacy for vulnerable populations in rural areas under the Digital India programme. Nedungadi et al. probe multiple literacies for low-literate learners in low-resource settings with low internet bandwidth, a lack of ICT facilities and intermittent electricity. The education model presented demonstrates the potential value of a comprehensive Digital Literacy framework as a powerful lever for Digital inclusion to empower learners, improving well-being and reducing the risks of exploitation. Back to the UK, we are presented with the findings from the research project by Rocks and Lavender which was designed to understand the experiences of 12 “non-traditional” graduates from a full-time BA programme at a Scottish College of Further and Higher Education. After surveying existing literature on transformative learning with a critical eye, the paper explores an alternative discourse, proposing that education should be a catalyst for social, emotional and intellectual growth, culminating in a transformative experience. The implications for the study point to the proposition that transformative teaching and learning theory may be as significant now as it ever was in understanding the changes which learners experience in higher education (HE) study. O’Brien takes us to Southern Ireland with his paper which draws on a qualitative research methodology, underpinned by critical realism to address the growing influence of neoliberalism and the commodification of adult literacy as a skill and function of the economy. The study argues for a greater focus on literacy as a social practice which stems from equality and social justice and is rooted in emancipatory and transformative adult education. Next we arrive at Duckworth and Smith’s paper, which grounded in critical pedagogy utilises digital methods to explore data from the UCU Further Education in England: Transforming Lives & Communities research project. The research presented develops a distinctive, theorised conceptualisation of transformative teaching and learning.

Atkinson’s paper is based on the southern hemisphere and Melbourne, Australia. He identifies factors which enhance transformational learning in adult learning spaces in relation to people experiencing cultural marginalisation. One site is an adult refugee mentoring programme run by a non-government organisation, the other is a contemporary adult learning classroom. He reports on the transformational experiences of long-term unemployed migrants within these two very different sites and programmes. The two studies are presented in terms of the cultural, social as well as functional challenges facing learners and the desire of teachers and mentors to act on the challenges encountered. The study draws attention to the concept of transformation and how it may be supported even in the adult education classroom framed by the neo-liberal agenda of economic rationalism. The next paper bring us back to the UK, and presents a qualitative study by Gartland and Smith which considers the experiences of young people on Level 3 Business and Technology Education Council (BTEC) vocational courses in their progression to HE from differently positioned post-16 colleges in England. Drawing on a Bourdieusian theoretical framework new insights are offered into the transformative potential of BTEC courses and their role in supporting progression to HE amongst young people from economically disadvantaged backgrounds.

Stahl and Loeser’s article based on a case study moves us back to Australia where an exploration of identity reconstruction and transition is explored in relation to Deo, a tradesman who became a first-year university student. Deo’s rich and transformative narrative offers insights into the socio-cultural narratives around masculinity, age, ethnicity, sexuality and socio-economic status highlighting their central significance to learning, being and belonging. Scott’s UK paper is next and draws on social learning theories and distils data from individual-participatory content posted to the social network Edmodo.com. The paper outlines the conceptualising of lifeworld experiences of GCSE re-sit FE student where literacy is situated in online learning social networks used to support studying of formal qualifications. It offers transformative practice which is underpinned by individual agency through online participation. This SI is closed by Panitsides and Kiouka and their qualitative study which, located in Greece, explores and offers meaningful insights in the learning background experiences and potential of women from the Muslim minority in Western Thrace. It provides a timely lens to probe and expose whether there is any “room” for transformative learning to take place in their underprivileged communities.

Ade-Ojo , G. and Duckworth , V. ( 2017 ), “ Of cultural dissonance: the UK’s adult literacy policies and the creation of democratic learning spaces ”, International Journal of Lifelong Education , Vol. 36 No. 4 , pp. 388 - 405 .

Beck , U. ( 1992 ), The Risk Society , Sage , London .

Duckworth , V. ( 2013 ), Learning Trajectories, Violence and Empowerment amongst Adult Basic Skills Learners , Routledge , London .

Duckworth , V. and Smith , R. ( 2017 ), “ Further education in England – Transforming lives and communities: interim report ”, UCU, available at: http://transforminglives.web.ucu.org.uk/2017/01/19/further-education-in-england-transforming-lives-and-communities/

Giddens , A. ( 1991 ), Modernity and Self–Identity , Polity Press , Cambridge .

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World Trends And Issues In Adult Education On The Eve Of The Twenty-First Century

• Published: September 1998
• Volume 44 , pages 485–506, ( 1998 )

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The forces of globalization today seem to have overwhelmed the historical political-cultural mission of adult education. Both in the North and the South, adult education is asked to contribute directly to productivity and thereby to competitiveness in the global market. The social component that survives is expected to help in coping with globalization. Voices of conscience and sanity have been raised at world summits in Rio (1992), Cairo (1994), Copenhagen (1995), Beijing (1995), and elsewhere. However, policies, plans and practices have not matched the declarations and agendas from the summits. The programs spawned by the Education for All conference of 1990 side-lined adult education, and so did the Report to UNESCO of the International Commission on Education for the Twenty-First Century (1996). The Fifth International Conference on Adult Education held in Hamburg during July 14–18, 1997 was marked by renewed commitment and solidarity. However, challenges of problematizing globalization, democratizing development, and socializing humanity for life together in the new century remain.

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